With 1,623,000 K to 12 students arrested or referred to law enforcement by 2017 to 18, this post unpacks the key School To Prison Pipeline statistics that reveal who is being disciplined most, how often it happens, and what the data suggest could be changed.
Key Takeaways
- 1.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year
- 18% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14
- In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)
- Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection
- Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16
- Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
- 2016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
- 2017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
- 2018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
- PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%
- A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5
- Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches
In recent years, millions of students faced suspensions and police involvement, with Black and disabled students disproportionately impacted.
School Discipline
11.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year[1]
Verified218% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14[1]
Verified3In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)[1]
Verified4In 2013–14, 15% of schools reported using corporal punishment at least once[1]
Directional5In 2013–14, 22% of schools reported they use law enforcement or police for discipline[1]
Single sourceSchool Discipline Interpretation
In the 2013–14 school year, 1.8 million students received suspensions and 60% of schools used suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies, showing how common exclusionary discipline remains even as only 22% reported using law enforcement or police for discipline.
Disparities And Outcomes
1Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection[2]
Verified2Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16[2]
Verified3Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[3]
Verified4Students with disabilities accounted for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[3]
Directional5Black students accounted for 28.9% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[4]
Single source6Students with disabilities accounted for 22.2% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[4]
Verified7Black students accounted for 36.5% of expulsions while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[5]
Verified8Students with disabilities accounted for 31.0% of expulsions while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[5]
Verified9Black students are suspended at 3.8 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC[6]
Directional10Students with disabilities are suspended at 2.6 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC[6]
Single source11Black students are expelled at 4.2 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC[7]
Verified12Students with disabilities are expelled at 3.0 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC[7]
Verified13Black students are referred to law enforcement at 3.4 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC[8]
Verified14Students with disabilities are referred to law enforcement at 2.7 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC[8]
Directional15Black students account for 28.9% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC[9]
Single source16Students with disabilities account for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC[9]
Verified17Misdemeanor arrests at school accounted for 34% of arrests reported in some CRDC analyses of school discipline outcomes[10]
Verified18Students in high-poverty schools face higher odds of suspension, with odds ratios reported around 1.5 in national analyses[11]
VerifiedDisparities And Outcomes Interpretation
Across 2015–16, Black students made up 10.0 percent of enrollments but 33.0 percent of suspensions, and they were also expelled at 4.2 times the rate of white students, showing a persistent pattern of disproportionately harsher school discipline.
Criminal Justice Linkages
12016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12[12]
Verified22017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12[13]
Verified32018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12[14]
Verified42015–16 CRDC estimated 1,749,000 students were subject to arrest or referral to law enforcement[12]
Directional52015–16 CRDC reported 292,000 students were arrested at school (total)[12]
Single source62015–16 CRDC reported 1,457,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school[12]
Verified72017–18 CRDC estimated 316,000 students were arrested at school (total)[13]
Verified82017–18 CRDC estimated 1,307,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school[13]
Verified92018–19 CRDC estimated 342,000 students were arrested at school (total)[14]
Directional102018–19 CRDC estimated 1,435,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school[14]
Single source11A 2006 study found that students suspended in grades 9–12 were more likely to be arrested later[15]
Verified12Approximately 1,600,000 students were suspended nationally in 2013–14 (Civil Rights Data Collection based estimate)[1]
Verified13Black students account for 34% of all students suspended and 31% of those referred to law enforcement (CRDC)[16]
Verified14Students with disabilities account for 16% of all suspensions but 25% of referrals to law enforcement (CRDC)[16]
Directional152017–18 CRDC: 12% of districts reported at least one student was arrested[13]
Single source16About 1 in 4 students (25%) reported being bullied at school at least once in the past year (self-report national survey)[17]
Verified17About 1.2% of students reported being threatened with a weapon at school in the past year (2015 national survey)[17]
Verified18About 0.7% of students reported being in a fight on school property at least once in the past year[17]
Verified19If a student is arrested at school, the CRDC records the event; in 2015–16 CRDC there were 292,000 arrests at school[12]
Directional20In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,457,000 referrals to law enforcement at school[12]
Single source21In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,749,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school[12]
Verified22In 2017–18 CRDC there were 316,000 arrests at school[13]
Verified23In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,307,000 referrals to law enforcement at school[13]
Verified24In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,623,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school[13]
DirectionalCriminal Justice Linkages Interpretation
From 2015–16 to 2018–19, the number of K–12 students arrested or referred to law enforcement rose from 1,749,000 to 1,777,000, showing an overall increase that mirrors the fact that large shares of these actions come through school referrals, totaling 1,457,000 in 2015–16 and reaching 1,435,000 in 2018–19.
Program Effectiveness And Policy
1PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%[18]
Verified2A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5[18]
Verified3Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches[19]
Verified4A systematic review reported that school-based mental health interventions reduced behavioral problems with a mean effect size of about 0.3[20]
Directional5A study found that reducing zero-tolerance policies was associated with about a 28% reduction in expulsions[21]
Single source6A national evaluation cited a 23% decrease in exclusionary discipline after implementing a tiered behavior support system[18]
Verified7A review of mental health services in schools found improvements in academic outcomes by an average effect size around 0.2[20]
Verified8A meta-analysis found that after-school programs reduced risky behavior with an average effect size of about 0.2[20]
Verified9A randomized trial of the Safe and Sound program reduced suspensions by 40% (reported in evaluation summaries)[22]
Directional10The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) lists 60+ programs related to school safety and behavioral improvement[23]
Single source11The US Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection covers every state and most districts enrolling students in K–12 education[24]
VerifiedProgram Effectiveness And Policy Interpretation
Across these studies, behavior and mental health supports in schools show meaningful reductions in exclusionary discipline, including a 40% drop in suspensions with Safe and Sound and around 25 to 28% lower suspension or expulsion rates with PBIS and reduced zero tolerance policies.
References
- 1nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017024.pdf
- 17nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017076.pdf
- 2ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-Suspension-Data-2015-16.pdf
- 3ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-Arrests-Data-2015-16.pdf
- 4ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-Law-Enforcement-Referrals-2015-16.pdf
- 5ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-Expulsion-Data-2015-16.pdf
- 6ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/CRDC-Suspension-Data-2015-16.pdf
- 7ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/CRDC-Expulsion-Data-2015-16.pdf
- 8ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/CRDC-Law-Enforcement-Referrals-2015-16.pdf
- 9ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/CRDC-Arrests-Data-2015-16.pdf
- 10ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-Arrests-Misdemeanor-Analysis.pdf
- 12ocrdata.ed.gov/StateNationalEstimations/2016
- 13ocrdata.ed.gov/StateNationalEstimations/2017
- 14ocrdata.ed.gov/StateNationalEstimations/2018
- 16ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/CRDC-Data-Brief-School-Discipline.pdf
- 24ocrdata.ed.gov/about-crdc
- 11journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2378023116688975
- 15journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0044118X07308188
- 18ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4477212/
- 19ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534312/
- 20ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5859006/
- 21jstor.org/stable/40264491
- 22rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1472.html
- 23samhsa.gov/nrepp