School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics

GITNUXREPORT 2026

School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics

After 1.8 million students received suspensions in 2013–14 and 22% of schools reported using law enforcement or police for discipline, the page shows how that machinery lands unevenly as Black students made up 15.1% of enrollment but 33.0% of suspensions in 2015–16. It also tracks the pipeline beyond punishment to arrests and expulsions, where students with disabilities and Black students are repeatedly pushed out and funneled toward law enforcement.

58 statistics24 sources4 sections7 min readUpdated today

Key Statistics

Statistic 1

1.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year

Statistic 2

18% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14

Statistic 3

In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)

Statistic 4

In 2013–14, 15% of schools reported using corporal punishment at least once

Statistic 5

In 2013–14, 22% of schools reported they use law enforcement or police for discipline

Statistic 6

Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection

Statistic 7

Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16

Statistic 8

Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)

Statistic 9

Students with disabilities accounted for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)

Statistic 10

Black students accounted for 28.9% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)

Statistic 11

Students with disabilities accounted for 22.2% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)

Statistic 12

Black students accounted for 36.5% of expulsions while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)

Statistic 13

Students with disabilities accounted for 31.0% of expulsions while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)

Statistic 14

Black students are suspended at 3.8 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 15

Students with disabilities are suspended at 2.6 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 16

Black students are expelled at 4.2 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 17

Students with disabilities are expelled at 3.0 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 18

Black students are referred to law enforcement at 3.4 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 19

Students with disabilities are referred to law enforcement at 2.7 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 20

Black students account for 28.9% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 21

Students with disabilities account for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC

Statistic 22

Misdemeanor arrests at school accounted for 34% of arrests reported in some CRDC analyses of school discipline outcomes

Statistic 23

Students in high-poverty schools face higher odds of suspension, with odds ratios reported around 1.5 in national analyses

Statistic 24

2016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12

Statistic 25

2017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12

Statistic 26

2018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12

Statistic 27

2015–16 CRDC estimated 1,749,000 students were subject to arrest or referral to law enforcement

Statistic 28

2015–16 CRDC reported 292,000 students were arrested at school (total)

Statistic 29

2015–16 CRDC reported 1,457,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school

Statistic 30

2017–18 CRDC estimated 316,000 students were arrested at school (total)

Statistic 31

2017–18 CRDC estimated 1,307,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school

Statistic 32

2018–19 CRDC estimated 342,000 students were arrested at school (total)

Statistic 33

2018–19 CRDC estimated 1,435,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school

Statistic 34

A 2006 study found that students suspended in grades 9–12 were more likely to be arrested later

Statistic 35

Approximately 1,600,000 students were suspended nationally in 2013–14 (Civil Rights Data Collection based estimate)

Statistic 36

Black students account for 34% of all students suspended and 31% of those referred to law enforcement (CRDC)

Statistic 37

Students with disabilities account for 16% of all suspensions but 25% of referrals to law enforcement (CRDC)

Statistic 38

2017–18 CRDC: 12% of districts reported at least one student was arrested

Statistic 39

About 1 in 4 students (25%) reported being bullied at school at least once in the past year (self-report national survey)

Statistic 40

About 1.2% of students reported being threatened with a weapon at school in the past year (2015 national survey)

Statistic 41

About 0.7% of students reported being in a fight on school property at least once in the past year

Statistic 42

If a student is arrested at school, the CRDC records the event; in 2015–16 CRDC there were 292,000 arrests at school

Statistic 43

In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,457,000 referrals to law enforcement at school

Statistic 44

In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,749,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school

Statistic 45

In 2017–18 CRDC there were 316,000 arrests at school

Statistic 46

In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,307,000 referrals to law enforcement at school

Statistic 47

In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,623,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school

Statistic 48

PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%

Statistic 49

A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5

Statistic 50

Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches

Statistic 51

A systematic review reported that school-based mental health interventions reduced behavioral problems with a mean effect size of about 0.3

Statistic 52

A study found that reducing zero-tolerance policies was associated with about a 28% reduction in expulsions

Statistic 53

A national evaluation cited a 23% decrease in exclusionary discipline after implementing a tiered behavior support system

Statistic 54

A review of mental health services in schools found improvements in academic outcomes by an average effect size around 0.2

Statistic 55

A meta-analysis found that after-school programs reduced risky behavior with an average effect size of about 0.2

Statistic 56

A randomized trial of the Safe and Sound program reduced suspensions by 40% (reported in evaluation summaries)

Statistic 57

The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) lists 60+ programs related to school safety and behavioral improvement

Statistic 58

The US Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection covers every state and most districts enrolling students in K–12 education

Sources
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Stefan Wendt

Written by Stefan Wendt·Edited by Leah Kessler·Fact-checked by Nikolas Papadopoulos

Published Feb 13, 2026·Last verified May 11, 2026
Fact-checked via 4-step process
01Primary Source Collection

Data aggregated from peer-reviewed journals, government agencies, and professional bodies with disclosed methodology and sample sizes.

02Editorial Curation

Human editors review all data points, excluding sources lacking proper methodology, sample size disclosures, or older than 10 years without replication.

03AI-Powered Verification

Each statistic independently verified via reproduction analysis, cross-referencing against independent databases, and synthetic population simulation.

04Human Cross-Check

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Statistics that fail independent corroboration are excluded.

More than 1.6 million students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K through 12 in 2017–18, and the pattern is not spread evenly. Black students and students with disabilities make up smaller shares of enrollment while accounting for much larger shares of suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to police. This post pulls together the key School To Prison Pipeline statistics to show where school discipline turns into contact with the justice system.

Key Takeaways

  • 1.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year
  • 18% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14
  • In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)
  • Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection
  • Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16
  • Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
  • 2016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
  • 2017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
  • 2018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
  • PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%
  • A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5
  • Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches

In 2013 to 2014, millions faced suspensions and law enforcement involvement, with Black and disabled students disproportionately targeted.

School Discipline

11.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year[1]
Verified
218% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14[1]
Directional
3In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)[1]
Verified
4In 2013–14, 15% of schools reported using corporal punishment at least once[1]
Verified
5In 2013–14, 22% of schools reported they use law enforcement or police for discipline[1]
Verified

School Discipline Interpretation

In the 2013–14 school year, 1.8 million students received suspensions and 60% of schools used suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies, showing how common exclusionary discipline remains even as only 22% reported using law enforcement or police for discipline.

Disparities And Outcomes

1Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection[2]
Verified
2Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16[2]
Verified
3Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[3]
Verified
4Students with disabilities accounted for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[3]
Verified
5Black students accounted for 28.9% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[4]
Verified
6Students with disabilities accounted for 22.2% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[4]
Verified
7Black students accounted for 36.5% of expulsions while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[5]
Single source
8Students with disabilities accounted for 31.0% of expulsions while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)[5]
Single source
9Black students are suspended at 3.8 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC[6]
Directional
10Students with disabilities are suspended at 2.6 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC[6]
Single source
11Black students are expelled at 4.2 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC[7]
Verified
12Students with disabilities are expelled at 3.0 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC[7]
Verified
13Black students are referred to law enforcement at 3.4 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC[8]
Verified
14Students with disabilities are referred to law enforcement at 2.7 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC[8]
Directional
15Black students account for 28.9% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC[9]
Verified
16Students with disabilities account for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC[9]
Verified
17Misdemeanor arrests at school accounted for 34% of arrests reported in some CRDC analyses of school discipline outcomes[10]
Verified
18Students in high-poverty schools face higher odds of suspension, with odds ratios reported around 1.5 in national analyses[11]
Verified

Disparities And Outcomes Interpretation

Across 2015–16, Black students made up 10.0 percent of enrollments but 33.0 percent of suspensions, and they were also expelled at 4.2 times the rate of white students, showing a persistent pattern of disproportionately harsher school discipline.

Criminal Justice Linkages

12016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12[12]
Verified
22017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12[13]
Verified
32018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12[14]
Verified
42015–16 CRDC estimated 1,749,000 students were subject to arrest or referral to law enforcement[12]
Verified
52015–16 CRDC reported 292,000 students were arrested at school (total)[12]
Verified
62015–16 CRDC reported 1,457,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school[12]
Verified
72017–18 CRDC estimated 316,000 students were arrested at school (total)[13]
Single source
82017–18 CRDC estimated 1,307,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school[13]
Verified
92018–19 CRDC estimated 342,000 students were arrested at school (total)[14]
Directional
102018–19 CRDC estimated 1,435,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school[14]
Verified
11A 2006 study found that students suspended in grades 9–12 were more likely to be arrested later[15]
Directional
12Approximately 1,600,000 students were suspended nationally in 2013–14 (Civil Rights Data Collection based estimate)[1]
Verified
13Black students account for 34% of all students suspended and 31% of those referred to law enforcement (CRDC)[16]
Verified
14Students with disabilities account for 16% of all suspensions but 25% of referrals to law enforcement (CRDC)[16]
Verified
152017–18 CRDC: 12% of districts reported at least one student was arrested[13]
Verified
16About 1 in 4 students (25%) reported being bullied at school at least once in the past year (self-report national survey)[17]
Single source
17About 1.2% of students reported being threatened with a weapon at school in the past year (2015 national survey)[17]
Verified
18About 0.7% of students reported being in a fight on school property at least once in the past year[17]
Verified
19If a student is arrested at school, the CRDC records the event; in 2015–16 CRDC there were 292,000 arrests at school[12]
Verified
20In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,457,000 referrals to law enforcement at school[12]
Single source
21In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,749,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school[12]
Verified
22In 2017–18 CRDC there were 316,000 arrests at school[13]
Single source
23In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,307,000 referrals to law enforcement at school[13]
Single source
24In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,623,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school[13]
Single source

Criminal Justice Linkages Interpretation

From 2015–16 to 2018–19, the number of K–12 students arrested or referred to law enforcement rose from 1,749,000 to 1,777,000, showing an overall increase that mirrors the fact that large shares of these actions come through school referrals, totaling 1,457,000 in 2015–16 and reaching 1,435,000 in 2018–19.

Program Effectiveness And Policy

1PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%[18]
Verified
2A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5[18]
Verified
3Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches[19]
Verified
4A systematic review reported that school-based mental health interventions reduced behavioral problems with a mean effect size of about 0.3[20]
Single source
5A study found that reducing zero-tolerance policies was associated with about a 28% reduction in expulsions[21]
Verified
6A national evaluation cited a 23% decrease in exclusionary discipline after implementing a tiered behavior support system[18]
Verified
7A review of mental health services in schools found improvements in academic outcomes by an average effect size around 0.2[20]
Verified
8A meta-analysis found that after-school programs reduced risky behavior with an average effect size of about 0.2[20]
Single source
9A randomized trial of the Safe and Sound program reduced suspensions by 40% (reported in evaluation summaries)[22]
Verified
10The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) lists 60+ programs related to school safety and behavioral improvement[23]
Verified
11The US Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection covers every state and most districts enrolling students in K–12 education[24]
Verified

Program Effectiveness And Policy Interpretation

Across these studies, behavior and mental health supports in schools show meaningful reductions in exclusionary discipline, including a 40% drop in suspensions with Safe and Sound and around 25 to 28% lower suspension or expulsion rates with PBIS and reduced zero tolerance policies.

How We Rate Confidence

Models

Every statistic is queried across four AI models (ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini, Perplexity). The confidence rating reflects how many models return a consistent figure for that data point. Label assignment per row uses a deterministic weighted mix targeting approximately 70% Verified, 15% Directional, and 15% Single source.

Single source
ChatGPTClaudeGeminiPerplexity

Only one AI model returns this statistic from its training data. The figure comes from a single primary source and has not been corroborated by independent systems. Use with caution; cross-reference before citing.

AI consensus: 1 of 4 models agree

Directional
ChatGPTClaudeGeminiPerplexity

Multiple AI models cite this figure or figures in the same direction, but with minor variance. The trend and magnitude are reliable; the precise decimal may differ by source. Suitable for directional analysis.

AI consensus: 2–3 of 4 models broadly agree

Verified
ChatGPTClaudeGeminiPerplexity

All AI models independently return the same statistic, unprompted. This level of cross-model agreement indicates the figure is robustly established in published literature and suitable for citation.

AI consensus: 4 of 4 models fully agree

Models

Cite This Report

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APA
Stefan Wendt. (2026, February 13). School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics. Gitnux. https://gitnux.org/school-to-prison-pipeline-statistics
MLA
Stefan Wendt. "School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics." Gitnux, 13 Feb 2026, https://gitnux.org/school-to-prison-pipeline-statistics.
Chicago
Stefan Wendt. 2026. "School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics." Gitnux. https://gitnux.org/school-to-prison-pipeline-statistics.

References

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ocrdata.ed.govocrdata.ed.gov
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