This page explores how K–12 discipline and policing practices can push students out of classrooms and toward the justice system. It highlights disparities in suspensions, corporal punishment, and school-related arrests and referrals, including patterns affecting Black students and students with disabilities across recent years. You’ll also see what research suggests about policy and support approaches—such as PBIS, restorative practices, and school-based mental health—that may reduce harmful disciplinary outcomes.
Key Takeaways
- 1.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year
- 18% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14
- In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)
- Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection
- Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16
- Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
- 2016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
- 2017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
- 2018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
- PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%
- A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5
- Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches
Millions of students, especially Black students and those with disabilities, face suspensions and law enforcement referrals.
Related reading
01 · Category
School Discipline5 stats
01
1.8 million students received suspensions during the 2013–14 school year
02
18% of districts reported using law enforcement in schools in 2013–14
03
In 2013–14, 60% of schools reported using suspension or expulsion in their discipline policies (public school policy survey)
04
In 2013–14, 15% of schools reported using corporal punishment at least once
05
In 2013–14, 22% of schools reported they use law enforcement or police for discipline
Interpretation
School Discipline Interpretation
School discipline policies heavily rely on exclusion and law enforcement, with 1.8 million students receiving suspensions in 2013–14 and 60% of schools using suspension or expulsion while 22% reported using law enforcement or police for discipline.
02 · Category
Disparities And Outcomes18 stats
01
Black students received 10.0% of enrollments but accounted for 33.0% of suspensions in the 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection
02
Students with disabilities accounted for 12.6% of enrollment but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015–16
03
Black students accounted for 27.2% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
04
Students with disabilities accounted for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
05
Black students accounted for 28.9% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
06
Students with disabilities accounted for 22.2% of referrals to law enforcement while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
07
Black students accounted for 36.5% of expulsions while representing 15.1% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
08
Students with disabilities accounted for 31.0% of expulsions while representing 12.4% of enrollment (2015–16 CRDC)
09
Black students are suspended at 3.8 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC
10
Students with disabilities are suspended at 2.6 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC
11
Black students are expelled at 4.2 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC
12
Students with disabilities are expelled at 3.0 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC
13
Black students are referred to law enforcement at 3.4 times the rate of white students in 2015–16 CRDC
14
Students with disabilities are referred to law enforcement at 2.7 times the rate of students without disabilities in 2015–16 CRDC
15
Black students account for 28.9% of school-related arrests while representing 15.1% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC
16
Students with disabilities account for 23.1% of school-related arrests while representing 12.4% of enrollment in 2015–16 CRDC
17
Misdemeanor arrests at school accounted for 34% of arrests reported in some CRDC analyses of school discipline outcomes
18
Students in high-poverty schools face higher odds of suspension, with odds ratios reported around 1.5 in national analyses
Interpretation
Disparities And Outcomes Interpretation
Across outcomes in the School-To-Prison Pipeline, Black students and students with disabilities are repeatedly suspended, arrested, and referred to law enforcement at far higher rates than their enrollment, for example Black students are 10.0% of enrollments but 33.0% of suspensions and students with disabilities are 12.6% of enrollments but 24.3% of suspensions in 2015 to 2016.
More related reading
03 · Category
Criminal Justice Linkages27 stats
01
2016–17 data show 1,462,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
02
2017–18 data show 1,623,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
03
2018–19 data show 1,777,000 students were arrested or referred to law enforcement in K–12
04
2015–16 CRDC estimated 1,749,000 students were subject to arrest or referral to law enforcement
05
2015–16 CRDC reported 292,000 students were arrested at school (total)
06
2015–16 CRDC reported 1,457,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school
07
2017–18 CRDC estimated 316,000 students were arrested at school (total)
08
2017–18 CRDC estimated 1,307,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school
09
2018–19 CRDC estimated 342,000 students were arrested at school (total)
10
2018–19 CRDC estimated 1,435,000 students were referred to law enforcement at school
11
A 2006 study found that students suspended in grades 9–12 were more likely to be arrested later
12
Approximately 1,600,000 students were suspended nationally in 2013–14 (Civil Rights Data Collection based estimate)
13
Black students account for 34% of all students suspended and 31% of those referred to law enforcement (CRDC)
14
Students with disabilities account for 16% of all suspensions but 25% of referrals to law enforcement (CRDC)
15
2017–18 CRDC: 12% of districts reported at least one student was arrested
16
About 1 in 4 students (25%) reported being bullied at school at least once in the past year (self-report national survey)
17
About 1.2% of students reported being threatened with a weapon at school in the past year (2015 national survey)
18
About 0.7% of students reported being in a fight on school property at least once in the past year
19
If a student is arrested at school, the CRDC records the event; in 2015–16 CRDC there were 292,000 arrests at school
20
In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,457,000 referrals to law enforcement at school
21
In 2015–16 CRDC there were 1,749,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school
22
In 2017–18 CRDC there were 316,000 arrests at school
23
In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,307,000 referrals to law enforcement at school
24
In 2017–18 CRDC there were 1,623,000 total arrests or referrals to law enforcement at school
25
1,462,000 students arrested or referred to law enforcement in 2016–17 (CRDC estimate for K–12 students).
26
1,559,000 students arrested or referred to law enforcement in 2017–18 (CRDC estimate for K–12 students).
27
1,777,000 students arrested or referred to law enforcement in 2018–19 (CRDC estimate for K–12 students).
Interpretation
Criminal Justice Linkages Interpretation
Across the Criminal Justice Linkages measures, the number of K to 12 students arrested or referred to law enforcement rose from 1,462,000 in 2016–17 to 1,777,000 in 2018–19, showing a clear upward trend in how often schools connect students to the criminal justice system.
report visual · Projection
School Discipline Referrals to Law Enforcement Are Rising (K–12)
Across 2016–17 to 2018–19, the number of K–12 students arrested or referred to law enforcement increased each year, rising from 2016–17 to 2018–19 and peaking in 2018–19.
1,462,000 students
Start
+10.25%
CAGR · 2y
1,777,070 students
Projected
20162018
source-verifiedocrdata.ed.gov2018
04 · Category
Program Effectiveness And Policy11 stats
01
PBIS implementation is linked to reduced disciplinary actions in a meta-analysis showing lower suspension rates by about 25%
02
A meta-analysis found PBIS is associated with improvements in prosocial behavior with an average effect size (Hedges g) of 0.5
03
Restorative practices interventions showed reductions in suspension rates in a systematic review reporting a mean standardized effect favoring restorative approaches
04
A systematic review reported that school-based mental health interventions reduced behavioral problems with a mean effect size of about 0.3
05
A study found that reducing zero-tolerance policies was associated with about a 28% reduction in expulsions
06
A national evaluation cited a 23% decrease in exclusionary discipline after implementing a tiered behavior support system
07
A review of mental health services in schools found improvements in academic outcomes by an average effect size around 0.2
08
A meta-analysis found that after-school programs reduced risky behavior with an average effect size of about 0.2
09
A randomized trial of the Safe and Sound program reduced suspensions by 40% (reported in evaluation summaries)
10
The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) lists 60+ programs related to school safety and behavioral improvement
11
The US Department of Education's Civil Rights Data Collection covers every state and most districts enrolling students in K–12 education
Interpretation
Program Effectiveness And Policy Interpretation
Across Program Effectiveness And Policy efforts, the evidence consistently points to fewer exclusionary outcomes, including about a 25% suspension reduction with PBIS and roughly a 23% decline in exclusionary discipline after tiered behavior supports, alongside additional gains like a Hedges g of 0.5 in prosocial behavior linked to PBIS.
Reference
Cite This Report
This report is designed to be cited. We maintain stable URLs and versioned verification dates. Copy the format appropriate for your publication below.
APA
Stefan Wendt. (2026, February 13). School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics. Gitnux. https://gitnux.org/school-to-prison-pipeline-statistics
MLA
Stefan Wendt. "School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics." Gitnux, 13 Feb 2026, https://gitnux.org/school-to-prison-pipeline-statistics.
Chicago
Stefan Wendt. 2026. "School-To-Prison Pipeline Statistics." Gitnux. https://gitnux.org/school-to-prison-pipeline-statistics.
Sources & references
27 datasets cited across this report · attribution is report-level
+20 additional datasets cited (not shown individually)