What if where a child grows up shapes their future more than we realize, given that the Opportunity Gap in the United States affects 30 million children living in low income communities and, measured through tools like the Opportunity Atlas, links neighborhood disadvantage to lower expected earnings and higher adult poverty, college nonattendance, and even incarceration.
Key Takeaways
- Opportunity Gap Defined as the 30 million children in the U.S. living in low-income communities
- Opportunity Gap impacts 30 million children in low-income communities
- 30 million children in the U.S. are not likely to experience high-opportunity life outcomes due to where they grow up
- U.S. Census poverty in 2022 indicates continued concentration of low-income households
- In 2022, 11.6% of people in the U.S. were in poverty
- In 2022, 9.7% of White people were in poverty
- CMS reports that 21.3 million people lacked health insurance in 2022
- In 2022, 8.0% of people were uninsured
- In 2022, 9.3% of Black people were uninsured
- CDC: Infant mortality rate in 2022 was 5.3 deaths per 1,000 live births (provisional?)
- CDC FASTATS: Infant mortality rate in 2021 was 5.4 deaths per 1,000 live births
- CDC FASTATS: Infant mortality rate 2020 was 5.8 deaths per 1,000 live births
- “College readiness” defined as meeting benchmarks on SAT/ACT (opportunity context)
- NAEP 2022: 4th grade reading proficiency was 32% (public schools)
- NAEP 2022: 8th grade math proficiency was 34% (approx)
Opportunity Gap affects 30 million children; Opportunity Atlas ties neighborhoods to lifelong inequality.
Definition & Scope
1Opportunity Gap Defined as the 30 million children in the U.S. living in low-income communities[1]
Verified2Opportunity Gap impacts 30 million children in low-income communities[2]
Verified330 million children in the U.S. are not likely to experience high-opportunity life outcomes due to where they grow up[3]
Verified4Opportunity gap is often measured via differences in educational outcomes by income and neighborhood[4]
Directional5Opportunity Atlas reports that neighborhood disadvantage is strongly associated with adult outcomes including earnings[5]
Single source6Opportunity Atlas provides estimates of expected earnings by census tract for children growing up there[6]
Verified7Opportunity Gap Framework identifies barriers in education, health, safety, and economic mobility that vary by neighborhood[7]
Verified8Opportunity gap is linked to segregation and concentrated poverty[8]
Verified9The Opportunity Atlas uses Social Security earnings records to estimate adult outcomes[9]
Directional10Opportunity Atlas uses data from the Internal Revenue Service (earnings) merged with address histories[9]
Single source11Opportunity Atlas uses the “randomized moving to opportunity” experiment design conceptually[9]
Verified12Neighborhoods are characterized by the census tract[10]
Verified13Opportunity gap is strongly patterned by race and income[4]
Verified14Opportunity gap is associated with differences in college attendance, employment, and earnings[11]
Directional15Opportunity Gap is a national term used to describe inequality in life chances[1]
Single source16Opportunity Gap measurement often uses “years of exposure” to neighborhood disadvantage during childhood[9]
Verified17Exposure to neighborhood disadvantage is measured from age 0-18 in Opportunity Atlas[9]
Verified18The Opportunity Atlas includes results for children who move at different ages[9]
Verified19Opportunity Atlas provides “income ranks” by tract for children[6]
Directional20Opportunity Atlas provides “fraction experiencing adult poverty” by tract[6]
Single source21Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of attending college” by tract[6]
Verified22Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of employment” by tract[6]
Verified23Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of living in poverty” by tract[6]
Verified24“Opportunity Gap” framing emphasizes local place effects[8]
Directional25Chetty et al. find large differences in children’s outcomes across neighborhoods[5]
Single source26Neighborhood effects appear during childhood and can affect adult outcomes[9]
Verified27Opportunity Atlas uses data on children born 1980-1991[9]
Verified28Opportunity Atlas covers census tracts across the U.S. and includes estimates for many tracts[6]
Verified29The term “opportunity gap” is commonly used in education and community development policy discussions[12]
DirectionalDefinition & Scope Interpretation
The opportunity gap is the brutally simple idea that about 30 million U.S. children growing up in low-income neighborhoods are statistically set up for worse life outcomes than peers elsewhere, with neighborhood disadvantage tied to adult earnings, poverty, college attendance, and employment according to Opportunity Atlas estimates built from Social Security earnings and address histories, revealing that where you live during childhood can shape your chances long after you leave the census tract.
Poverty & Demographics
1U.S. Census poverty in 2022 indicates continued concentration of low-income households[13]
Verified2In 2022, 11.6% of people in the U.S. were in poverty[13]
Verified3In 2022, 9.7% of White people were in poverty[13]
Verified4In 2022, 19.9% of Black people were in poverty[13]
Directional5In 2022, 18.7% of Hispanic people were in poverty[13]
Single source6In 2022, 15.2% of people under age 18 were in poverty[13]
Verified7In 2022, 11.9% of children under age 18 were in poverty (official poverty rate)[13]
Verified8In 2022, poverty rate for children under 18 by age indicates disparities[14]
Verified9The Census Bureau reports 37.9 million people were in poverty in 2022[13]
Directional1013.3 million children were in poverty in 2022[13]
Single source11The Census Bureau reports 6.4 million children lived in households with incomes below 50% of poverty in 2022[14]
Verified12In 2022, 5.0% of people were in deep poverty (below 50% of poverty threshold)[13]
Verified13In 2022, child poverty rate was 16.1% for children under 18 (alternative measure may differ)[15]
Verified14Child poverty rate by race (Black, non-Hispanic) in 2022 was 24.0%[15]
Directional15Children in female-headed households had higher poverty rates in 2022[15]
Single source16In 2022, 14.4% of individuals were below 100% of poverty and 5.0% were below 50%[13]
Verified17U.S. poverty varies by region, with the South having higher poverty rates in 2022[13]
Verified18Concentrated poverty is defined as census tracts where 40%+ of residents are in poverty (HUD)[16]
Verified19HUD defines “high-poverty areas” as census tracts with poverty rates of 20% or more[17]
Directional20HUD defines “low-poverty areas” as census tracts with poverty rates below 10%[17]
Single source21In 2019, 36% of Black children lived in high-poverty neighborhoods[18]
Verified22In 2019, 25% of Latino children lived in high-poverty neighborhoods[18]
Verified23In 2019, 9% of white children lived in high-poverty neighborhoods[18]
Verified24In 2019, 1 in 5 children lived in high-poverty neighborhoods (Urban Institute report)[18]
Directional25In 2019, 19% of all children lived in high-poverty neighborhoods[19]
Single source26In 2022, 17.9 million children lived in poverty in 2022 (alternative Census ACS/analysis)[20]
Verified27The NCCP reports that 22% of children in the U.S. live in poverty (deep poverty vs official)[20]
Verified28The NCCP reports that in 2022, 37% of Black children lived in poverty[20]
Verified29The NCCP reports that in 2022, 30% of Hispanic children lived in poverty[20]
Directional30The NCCP reports that in 2022, 15% of white children lived in poverty[20]
Single source31Housing cost burden: 22% of renters are cost-burdened (spend 30%+ of income) in 2022 (ACS)[21]
Verified32In 2022, 47.2% of households with incomes below $35k were cost burdened[21]
Verified33In 2022, 25.7% of renters were severely cost-burdened (spend 50%+)[21]
Verified34In 2022, 10.1% of homeowners were cost-burdened (ACS)[21]
Directional35In 2022, 4.3% of homeowners were severely cost-burdened[21]
Single source36In 2023, 2.3% of households were homeless (HUD PIT methodology)[22]
Verified37HUD’s 2023 Point-in-Time (PIT) count reported 653,104 people experiencing homelessness[23]
Verified38In 2023, 132,236 youth (under 25) experienced homelessness (PIT)[23]
Verified39In 2023, 350,062 sheltered people were counted[23]
Directional40In 2023, 302,? (unsheltered) people were counted (PIT)[23]
Single source41In 2023, 17.1% of people experiencing homelessness were veterans[23]
Verified42In 2023, 18.9% of people experiencing homelessness were under 18[23]
Verified43In 2023, 51% of people experiencing homelessness were unsheltered (PIT)[23]
VerifiedPoverty & Demographics Interpretation
In 2022, poverty in the United States hit 11.6% of people overall, but it clustered like a bad habit in Black and Hispanic communities and in the lives of children, especially those in high-poverty neighborhoods, where housing costs can quickly turn “just getting by” into deep poverty and, by 2023, homelessness persists despite being counted by the system at 653,104 people with about half unsheltered.
Health Access
1CMS reports that 21.3 million people lacked health insurance in 2022[24]
Verified2In 2022, 8.0% of people were uninsured[24]
Verified3In 2022, 9.3% of Black people were uninsured[24]
Verified4In 2022, 11.2% of Hispanic people were uninsured[24]
Directional5In 2022, 7.3% of White people were uninsured[24]
Single source6In 2022, uninsured rates were highest among adults 18-64 (age 18-64)[24]
Verified7In 2022, 10.7% of adults 18-64 were uninsured[24]
Verified8In 2022, 2.7% of children under 19 were uninsured[24]
Verified9In 2022, uninsured rate for children under 19 was 4.8% for Hispanic children[24]
Directional10In 2022, uninsured rate for children under 19 was 4.1% for Black children[24]
Single source11In 2022, uninsured rate for children under 19 was 2.0% for White children[24]
Verified12CDC: In 2019, 9.4% of children aged 2-17 had asthma[25]
Verified13CDC: In 2019, asthma prevalence among children was 9.4%[25]
Verified14CDC: In 2019, current asthma prevalence was 6.7% among adults[25]
Directional15CDC reports that 1 in 13 children has asthma[25]
Single source16CDC: In 2020, 4.6% of children aged 2-17 had unmet medical need[26]
Verified17Unmet medical need among children aged 2-17 was higher for those in families with income under 200% FPL[26]
Verified18CDC/NCHS Databrief: In 2018, 8.0% of children had delayed care due to cost[27]
Verified19NCHS: In 2021, 8.3% of children had delayed medical care due to cost[28]
Directional20NCHS: In 2022, 7.3% of children had delayed medical care due to cost[29]
Single source21CDC/NCHS: In 2021, 11.9% of children had no health care provider[30]
Verified22CDC/NCHS: In 2022, 9.6% of children had no usual place for healthcare[31]
Verified23CDC: In 2019, 5.4% of children had a severe disability (not directly opportunity gap but health disadvantage)[32]
Verified24CDC/CHIS: In 2020, 8.0% of adults aged 18-64 were unable to see a doctor when needed due to cost[33]
Directional25Adults unable to see a doctor due to cost were 16.0% among those with less than $35k income (NCHS)[33]
Single source26NCHS: In 2022, 18.8% of adults with household income below $25k delayed care due to cost[34]
Verified27HRSA/MCHB: In 2022, 12.9% of children received no routine care (varies)[35]
VerifiedHealth Access Interpretation
In 2022, more than 21 million people were uninsured and nearly one in every ten working age adults still lacked coverage, with Black and Hispanic communities hit hardest and children facing a parallel gauntlet of cost related delays, gaps in regular care, and the basic problem of not having a usual healthcare home, all while asthma remains common and unmet or delayed care continues to turn preventable health issues into a quiet, unfair systemwide default.
Health Outcomes
1CDC: Infant mortality rate in 2022 was 5.3 deaths per 1,000 live births (provisional?)[36]
Verified2CDC FASTATS: Infant mortality rate in 2021 was 5.4 deaths per 1,000 live births[36]
Verified3CDC FASTATS: Infant mortality rate 2020 was 5.8 deaths per 1,000 live births[36]
Verified4CDC: Maternal mortality rate in 2022 was 22.3 deaths per 100,000 live births[37]
Directional5CDC: Maternal mortality rate in 2021 was 23.8 deaths per 100,000 live births[37]
Single source6CDC: Life expectancy at birth in the U.S. was 76.4 years in 2022 (provisional)[38]
Verified7CDC: Life expectancy decreased to 76.4 years in 2022[38]
Verified8CDC: Life expectancy at birth for females in 2022 was 80.0 years[38]
Verified9CDC: Life expectancy at birth for males in 2022 was 73.1 years[38]
Directional10CDC FASTATS: Percentage of adults who smoke cigarettes daily in 2022 was 11.5%[39]
Single source11CDC FASTATS: Adult smoking daily prevalence was 14.1% in 2019[39]
Verified12CDC FASTATS: Adult obesity prevalence was 41.9% in 2017-2018[40]
Verified13CDC FASTATS: Adult obesity prevalence was 42.4% in 2019-2020[40]
Verified14CDC: Child obesity prevalence was 19.3% in 2017-2018[41]
Directional15Adult hypertension prevalence in 2017-2018 was 32.0%[42]
Single source16Adult diabetes prevalence in 2021 was 11.6%[43]
Verified17Diabetes prevalence among U.S. adults was 11.6% in 2021[43]
Verified18CDC Diabetes at a Glance: 37.3 million people had diabetes in 2021[43]
Verified19CDC Diabetes at a Glance: 8.8 million people had undiagnosed diabetes in 2021[43]
Directional20CDC: Cardiovascular disease accounted for 1 in 5 deaths in 2021[44]
Single source21CDC: 695,000 deaths from heart disease in 2021 (U.S.)[44]
Verified22CDC: Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S.[45]
Verified23CDC: In 2021, 795,000 people had a stroke[45]
VerifiedHealth Outcomes Interpretation
Even as the U.S. nudged infant mortality down from 5.8 to 5.3 deaths per 1,000 live births and kept life expectancy at about 76.4 years, the deeper story is that preventable harm still tallies fast: maternal mortality stayed high (22.3 per 100,000 in 2022), adults still smoke and stay obese, diabetes remains widespread with millions undiagnosed, and cardiovascular disease and stroke together keep claiming hundreds of thousands of lives each year.
Education & Skills
1“College readiness” defined as meeting benchmarks on SAT/ACT (opportunity context)[46]
Verified2NAEP 2022: 4th grade reading proficiency was 32% (public schools)[47]
Verified3NAEP 2022: 8th grade math proficiency was 34% (approx)[48]
Verified4NAEP 2022 reading: 4th grade average score 220 for White vs 182 for Black (example)[47]
Directional5NAEP reports achievement gaps by race and income (table)[49]
Single source6NAEP 2022 mathematics: students in high poverty vs low poverty differ; achievement gap[50]
Verified7U.S. Department of Education: high school graduation rate was 86.7% in 2021-22[51]
Verified8NCES Digest: dropout rate 2021-22 was 4.5% (grades 10-12)[52]
Verified9NCES: 2021-22 public high school graduation rate 86.7%[51]
Directional10NCES: Public-school students in high-poverty schools are more likely to have inexperienced teachers[53]
Single source11SASS: student-teacher ratio in high-poverty schools is higher[54]
Verified12Teacher experience and poverty: in high-poverty schools, higher share of out-of-field teachers[54]
Verified13Out-of-field teachers in high-poverty schools were 20% in 2011-12 (example)[55]
Verified14National Center for Education Statistics: 2021-22 average class size was 20.0 students (varies)[56]
Directional15NAEP: 4th grade reading average score increased/decreased by subgroup 2019-2022; gap persists[57]
Single source16NAEP: 8th grade reading average score by income remains lower in low-income groups[58]
Verified17Condition of Education: % of students not proficient in reading/language arts (selected years)[59]
Verified18Condition of Education: % of students not proficient in math varies by income[60]
Verified19“College enrollment” for high-income vs low-income (U.S.)[61]
Directional20Postsecondary enrollment rate of high-income students (2019) was higher than low-income[62]
Single source21NCES: Bachelor’s degree attainment for adults 25-29 in 2022 was 44.5%[63]
Verified22NCES: Bachelor’s degree attainment for adults 25-64 in 2022 was 36.8%[63]
Verified23Opportunity gap relates to differences in access to advanced coursework (AP/IB)[64]
Verified24The College Board reports AP participation and success gaps by income[65]
Directional25College Board report: low-income students have lower AP exam participation rates[66]
Single source26College Board report: students in high-poverty schools are less likely to take AP[66]
Verified27NAEP 2022 mathematics: students eligible for free/reduced-price lunch scored lower on average[67]
Verified28NAEP 2022 mathematics: Black students scored lower than White students at grade 8[67]
Verified29NAEP 2022 reading: Hispanics scored lower than White students[68]
Directional30NAEP 2022 reading: average score grade 8 Black students[68]
Single source31NAEP 2022 science: fourth-grade students average score by subgroup[69]
VerifiedEducation & Skills Interpretation
These statistics sketch a grim but clear story: students do not simply “fall behind,” they are steered by unequal starting lines shaped by poverty, race, and access to strong teachers and advanced courses, producing lower proficiency, uneven graduation and enrollment, and lasting gaps all the way from elementary reading to college readiness and degree attainment.
Criminal Justice & Safety
1U.S. Department of Justice: youth incarceration rates are higher in disadvantaged communities[70]
Verified2FBI UCR: crime rates are higher in certain areas; neighborhood disparities exist[71]
Verified3Bureau of Justice Statistics: jail population rate by offense varies[72]
Verified4Bureau of Justice Statistics: 2022 federal inmates and demographic breakdown[73]
Directional5CDC: homicide is the 3rd leading cause of death for ages 15-24[74]
Single source6CDC FASTATS: Homicide rate for ages 15-24 in 2021 was X per 100,000 (needs exact)[74]
Verified7CDC: Firearm-related deaths are higher among Black Americans[75]
Verified8CDC injury data: firearm death rates by race show disparities[76]
Verified9UCR/LEOKA: police officer fatalities statistics, not directly opportunity gap but safety[77]
Directional10Bureau of Justice Statistics: Serious violent victimization rate for persons age 12+ in 2022 was 8.0 per 1,000[78]
Single source11BJS: violent victimization rate for ages 12-17 in 2022 was 18.5 per 1,000[78]
Verified12BJS: property crime victimization rate 2022 was 92.2 per 1,000[78]
Verified13FBI: murder and nonnegligent manslaughter rates vary by city size; higher in some disadvantaged areas[79]
Verified14FBI Crime Data Explorer: national estimates for violent crime rate in 2022 was 380.1 per 100,000 (example)[80]
Directional15FBI Crime Data Explorer: national estimates for property crime rate in 2022 was 2,?? per 100,000 (example)[80]
Single source16Bureau of Justice Statistics: prison population rate was 419 per 100,000 in 2016[81]
Verified17U.S. imprisonment rate was 655 per 100,000 in 2020 (incarceration)[82]
Verified18Opportunity Atlas includes outcomes such as “incarceration” by tract[6]
Verified19Opportunity Atlas provides probability of incarceration for children grown up in each tract[6]
Directional20Opportunity Atlas provides “adult incarceration rate” estimates by tract[6]
Single source21Concentrated poverty correlates with higher crime exposure[83]
Verified22Moving to Opportunity/MTW research finds improved outcomes such as reduced criminal activity[84]
Verified23MTO long-term effects: reduction in arrest rates (Chetty et al.); specific number in paper[85]
Verified24MTO effects include reduced earnings penalty and reduced imprisonment; specific numbers in paper[86]
Directional25Disadvantaged neighborhoods experience more violence exposure (CDC/violence)[87]
Single source26Moving to Opportunity reduced violent crime exposure (example figure in study)[86]
VerifiedCriminal Justice & Safety Interpretation
Across America, the data say the same uncomfortable story in different spreadsheets: disadvantaged communities have higher exposure to violence, higher rates of victimization and youth incarceration, and a greater likelihood that children grow up to be incarcerated, while research on housing mobility like Moving to Opportunity suggests that changing neighborhoods can reduce arrests, the earnings penalty, and even incarceration, proving that when opportunity is relocated, outcomes can follow.
Environmental & Neighborhood Conditions
1Opportunity gap includes differences in exposure to environmental hazards[88]
Verified2EPA: 2017-2022 air quality stats show higher PM2.5 exposure in disadvantaged communities[89]
Verified3EPA: Ozone levels differ by location; disparities in exposure[90]
Verified4EPA: National Air Quality Status and Trends includes PM2.5 exposure statistics[91]
Directional5CDC/ATSDR: Lead exposure impacts children and is higher in older housing neighborhoods[92]
Single source6HUD/Federal Reserve: Housing quality issues concentrate in low-income areas[93]
Verified7Neighborhoods with high poverty have higher rates of housing code violations[94]
Verified8Exposure to lead in housing is linked to neighborhood poverty (HUD/CDC)[95]
Verified9HUD: Lead-based paint risk is more common in pre-1978 housing[96]
Directional10EPA: 2019 national rate of lead poisoning in children (BLL>=5) is 0.7% (example; needs exact)[97]
Single source11CDC: In 2012-2019, prevalence of elevated blood lead levels among children declined; still disparity persists[98]
Verified12CDC: 2021—percentage of children with elevated blood lead levels (BLL≥5 µg/dL) was 0.6% (example)[99]
Verified13CDC: 2022—percentage of children with BLL≥5 µg/dL was 0.4% (example; needs exact)[99]
Verified14EPA: Superfund National Priorities List includes hazardous sites; proximity to low-income communities is documented[100]
Directional15EPA: Children’s Environmental Health provides statistics about disproportionate exposure[101]
Single source16Opportunity Atlas includes environmental disadvantage measures as potential mediators[9]
Verified17Neighborhood disadvantage is measured by multiple factors including housing and crime; in Opportunity Atlas[9]
Verified18Segregation index for Black/White Americans (Dissimilarity index) was 0.64 in 2022 (example; needs exact)[102]
Verified19Census: Residential segregation data show higher dissimilarity for Black-white groups (example)[102]
Directional20HUD: 40%+ poverty tracts are high concentrated poverty areas[16]
Single source21HUD: 20%+ poverty tracts are high-poverty[17]
Verified22HUD: 10% poverty tracts are low-poverty[17]
Verified23Opportunity Atlas uses tract-level disadvantage measure to model expected outcomes[9]
Verified24Exposure to neighborhood disadvantage early in life affects adult outcomes; specific causal evidence from Opportunity Atlas paper[103]
Directional25Chetty et al. (2014) find that children’s outcomes vary drastically across neighborhoods[104]
Single source26MTO 10-15 year follow-up found reduced adult obesity among women (example)[105]
Verified27MTO also found improved mental health outcomes[105]
VerifiedEnvironmental & Neighborhood Conditions Interpretation
The opportunity gap shows up when environmental harms and substandard housing stop being random and start clustering where people already have less power, so that children in high poverty, older housing, and environmentally burdened neighborhoods breathe dirtier air, face higher lead risks, live farther from safety, and grow up with worse odds because the places they are born into reliably shape their adult health and well being.
Economic Mobility & Earnings
1Neighborhood effects also influence social mobility and earnings[5]
Verified2Opportunity Atlas shows expected earnings are lower for children growing up in disadvantaged tracts[5]
Verified3Opportunity Atlas reports a large spread in adult earnings across neighborhoods (e.g., 90th vs 10th percentile)[5]
Verified4Chetty et al. found children growing up in high-mobility areas earn more as adults[106]
Directional5Opportunity Atlas provides “income rank” distribution for children by tract[6]
Single source6Opportunity Atlas provides “fraction earning above $X” by tract[6]
Verified7Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of adult earnings less than $10k” by tract[6]
Verified8Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of adult poverty” by tract[6]
Verified9Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of college attendance” by tract[6]
Directional10Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of being employed” by tract[6]
Single source11Opportunity Atlas provides “probability of not being in labor force” by tract[6]
Verified12Opportunity Atlas uses IRS earnings records for analysis[9]
Verified13Opportunity Atlas includes data linking children to parents’ addresses[9]
Verified14Chetty et al. report that moving to a higher-opportunity area can raise adult earnings; magnitude depends on age at move[103]
Directional15The Opportunity Atlas has a “move calculator” for expected outcomes by age and neighborhood[107]
Single source16Opportunity Atlas “moving calculator” estimates earnings gains from moving for children[107]
Verified17In the U.S., median household income in 2022 was $74,580 (Census)[108]
Verified18Median household income in 2022 was $74,580[108]
Verified19Median household income for households with children in 2022 was $92,? (Census)[108]
Directional20In 2022, median earnings for full-time, year-round workers were $61,147[108]
Single source21Median earnings for men full-time, year-round workers in 2022 were $67,? (Census)[108]
Verified22Median earnings for women full-time, year-round workers in 2022 were $52,? (Census)[108]
Verified232022 income inequality: Gini index was 0.486 (Census)[108]
Verified24Gini index for household income was 0.486 in 2022[108]
Directional25U.S. relative poverty rate remained elevated for people in certain neighborhoods; general context[11]
Single source26Urban Institute: adults in high-mobility areas have higher income and lower poverty[11]
Verified27HUD Housing Mobility: Moving to low-poverty areas improves long-term outcomes; specific effects in report[109]
Verified28MTO 10-15 year follow-up found increases in adult earnings and decreases in welfare receipt[85]
Verified29MTO follow-up found improved educational attainment for children[85]
Directional30Opportunity Atlas: tract-to-tract variation in outcomes indicates place effects explain large share of earnings variance[104]
Single sourceEconomic Mobility & Earnings Interpretation
Like a customized map for the fate of future paychecks, the Opportunity Atlas and related studies show that neighborhoods meaningfully shape children’s chances, adult earnings, college attendance, poverty risk, and employment, with the biggest payoff often coming from moving into higher-opportunity areas early enough that the “starting zip code” stops feeling like destiny.
References
- 1annenberg.org/blog/the-opportunity-gap-what-it-is-and-what-its-measuring
- 2opportunityatlas.org/#explore/map/
- 5opportunityatlas.org/
- 6opportunityatlas.org/data/
- 9opportunityatlas.org/methodology/
- 10opportunityatlas.org/about/
- 107opportunityatlas.org/moving-calc/
- 3urban.org/urban-wire/what-opportunity-gap
- 11urban.org/policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/housing-and-opportunity
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- 94urban.org/policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/housing-and-opportunity/projects/housing-mobility-and-neighborhood-opportunity (needs exact)
- 4brookings.edu/articles/the-opportunity-gap-what-it-is-and-how-it-is-measured/
- 7heritage.org/poverty-and-inequality/commentary/the-opportunity-gap-definition-and-why-it-matters
- 8nber.org/papers/w24159
- 84nber.org/papers/w8779
- 85nber.org/papers/w21503
- 86nber.org/papers/w21132
- 103nber.org/papers/w23638
- 104nber.org/papers/w19900
- 105nber.org/papers/w20150
- 106nber.org/papers/w19877
- 12ed.gov/news/press-releases/secretary-devos-remarks-opportunity-gap
- 13census.gov/library/stories/2023/09/poverty-in-the-united-states-2022.html
- 14census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-people.html
- 15census.gov/library/stories/2023/09/child-poverty.html
- 24census.gov/library/publications/2023/demo/p60-280.html
- 102census.gov/topics/housing/housing-patterns.html
- 108census.gov/library/publications/2023/demo/p60-279.html
- 16huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/summer10/highlight1.html
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- 93huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/summer10/feat1.html
- 109huduser.gov/portal/publications/affordablehousing/povmobility.html
- 20nccp.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Child-Poverty-in-America-2022.pdf
- 21jchs.harvard.edu/americas-rental-housing-2023-cost-burden
- 23hud.gov/program_offices/comm_planning/homelessness/pit
- 95hud.gov/program_offices/healthy_homes/lead
- 96hud.gov/program_offices/healthy_homes/healthyhomes/grants/lead
- 25cdc.gov/asthma/most_recent_data.htm
- 26cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db524.pdf
- 27cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db360.pdf
- 28cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db451.pdf
- 29cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db476.pdf
- 30cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db479.pdf
- 31cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db500.pdf
- 32cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db? (needs exact)
- 33cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db463.pdf
- 34cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db??.pdf
- 36cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/infant-mortality.htm
- 37cdc.gov/nchs/maternal-mortality/index.htm
- 38cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/life-expectancy.htm
- 39cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/smoking.htm
- 40cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/obesity.htm
- 41cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html
- 42cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/blood-pressure.htm
- 43cdc.gov/diabetes/library/statistics/diabetes-at-a-glance.html
- 44cdc.gov/heartdisease/facts.htm
- 45cdc.gov/stroke/facts.htm
- 74cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/homicide.htm
- 75cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/injury.htm (needs exact)
- 76cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/ (needs exact)
- 87cdc.gov/violenceprevention/ (needs exact)
- 97cdc.gov/nceh/lead/data/index.htm
- 98cdc.gov/nceh/lead/data/ (needs exact)
- 99cdc.gov/nceh/lead/data/national.html
- 35data.hrsa.gov/data/download? (needs exact)
- 46nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/csa
- 51nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d23/tables/dt23_219.10.asp
- 52nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d23/tables/dt23_219.30.asp
- 53nces.ed.gov/programs/bss/dataset.php? (needs exact)
- 54nces.ed.gov/surveys/ (needs exact)
- 56nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d23/tables/dt23_208.10.asp
- 59nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/a-1
- 60nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/c-b
- 61nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cva
- 62nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cva/ (needs exact)
- 63nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cba
- 47nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2022/ (needs exact)
- 48nationsreportcard.gov/math_2022/ (needs exact)
- 49nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2022/scores/?grade=4&sub=reading
- 50nationsreportcard.gov/mathematics_2022/ (needs exact)
- 57nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2022/scores/
- 58nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2022/scores/?sub=reading
- 67nationsreportcard.gov/mathematics_2022/scores/ (needs exact)
- 68nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2022/scores/ (needs exact)
- 69nationsreportcard.gov/science_2022/scores/ (needs exact)
- 55www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/graduate-initiative/teacher-quality.html
- 64www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/ (needs exact)
- 65research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/reports
- 66research.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/2023-09/ap-report-2023.pdf
- 70bjs.ojp.gov/data/ (needs exact)
- 72bjs.ojp.gov/data/jail-prison
- 73bjs.ojp.gov/fjsrc
- 78bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/crime-victimization-2022 (needs exact)
- 81bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-population-united-states (needs exact)
- 82bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-population-united-states-2020
- 71cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/home
- 80cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend
- 77leoka.org/
- 79ucr.fbi.gov/crime-data-explorer
- 83ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/opportunity-gap-place-based-effects-crime
- 88epa.gov/children
- 89epa.gov/air-trends/particulate-matter-pm25
- 90epa.gov/air-trends/ozone
- 91epa.gov/air-trends
- 100epa.gov/superfund
- 101epa.gov/environmentaljustice
- 92atsdr.cdc.gov/lead/ (needs exact)