GITNUXREPORT 2026

Russian Tech Industry Statistics

Russia's tech industry shows robust growth and adaptation despite geopolitical challenges.

Alexander Schmidt

Alexander Schmidt

Research Analyst specializing in technology and digital transformation trends.

First published: Feb 13, 2026

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Key Statistics

Statistic 1

Russian software exports grew 20% to $5 billion in 2023.

Statistic 2

IT services exports from Russia: $3.2 billion in 2023.

Statistic 3

Top export markets for Russian software: CIS countries 40% share in 2023.

Statistic 4

Kaspersky global market share 15% in endpoint security 2023.

Statistic 5

Yandex services users outside Russia: 50 million in 2023.

Statistic 6

1C software exported to 90 countries, 7 million users 2023.

Statistic 7

ABBYY OCR tech used in 200 countries 2023.

Statistic 8

Acronis partners in 150 countries 2023.

Statistic 9

Russian IT firms in BRICS: 500 active exporters 2023.

Statistic 10

Software export growth to India: 50% YoY 2023.

Statistic 11

Middle East market for Russian cybersecurity: $500 million 2023.

Statistic 12

Africa software deals: 200 contracts worth $300 million 2023.

Statistic 13

Latin America Russian IT penetration 10% growth 2023.

Statistic 14

EU sanctions impact: export diversification to Asia 60% 2023.

Statistic 15

Global ranking of Russian software exporters: top 20 2023.

Statistic 16

Offshore development centers from Russia: 100 serving US/EU 2023.

Statistic 17

Game exports revenue $1 billion from Russia 2023.

Statistic 18

Fintech software to UAE/Saudi: $200 million 2023.

Statistic 19

Edtech platforms users in 50 countries: 10 million 2023.

Statistic 20

Agritech software to China: 100 deals $150 million 2023.

Statistic 21

Healthtech exports to Southeast Asia: $100 million 2023.

Statistic 22

SaaS global subscriptions from Russia: 5 million 2023.

Statistic 23

Cloud services exported: 20% of revenue international 2023.

Statistic 24

AI solutions to Germany despite sanctions: 50 projects 2023.

Statistic 25

IT R&D expenditure in Russia: 1% of GDP in 2023.

Statistic 26

Number of patents in IT filed by Russians: 15,000 in 2023.

Statistic 27

Skolkovo residents: 2,500 companies with 100,000 employees in 2023.

Statistic 28

Supercomputer projects: 50 in Russia with TOP500 ranking in 2023.

Statistic 29

AI research papers from Russia: 5,000 published in 2023.

Statistic 30

Quantum computing investments: 50 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 31

5G base stations deployed: 20,000 in Russia by 2023.

Statistic 32

Satellite internet projects: 100 launches planned 2023.

Statistic 33

Blockchain patents: 2,000 filed in 2023.

Statistic 34

Robotics companies: 500 active in Russia 2023.

Statistic 35

Drone tech R&D funding 30 billion rubles 2023.

Statistic 36

Biotech IT integrations: 200 projects in 2023.

Statistic 37

Clean energy software innovations: 150 patents 2023.

Statistic 38

Nanotechnology R&D centers: 20 in Russia 2023.

Statistic 39

Open source contributions from Russia: top 10 globally 2023.

Statistic 40

Hackathon winners funding: 10 billion rubles 2023.

Statistic 41

Tech incubators: 300 across Russia hosting 5,000 startups 2023.

Statistic 42

R&D tax incentives utilized by 1,000 IT firms in 2023.

Statistic 43

International tech collaborations: 500 agreements in 2023.

Statistic 44

Innovation hubs output: 10,000 new products 2023.

Statistic 45

Venture investments in Russian IT reached 500 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 46

Skolkovo Foundation invested 100 billion rubles in startups by 2023.

Statistic 47

RVC venture fund portfolio 300 startups worth 200 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 48

Internet Initiatives Development Fund (IIDF) funded 500 projects with 50 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 49

Number of IT unicorns in Russia reached 10 in 2023.

Statistic 50

Foreign VC investment in Russian tech dropped to $1 billion in 2023.

Statistic 51

Domestic VC deals in IT sector: 1,200 in 2023 totaling 400 billion rubles.

Statistic 52

Crowdfunding platforms raised 20 billion rubles for tech in 2023.

Statistic 53

Government grants for IT R&D: 150 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 54

Corporate VC arms invested 80 billion rubles in startups in 2023.

Statistic 55

Angel investments in Russian tech: 30 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 56

Blockchain startups funding 15 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 57

AI startups received 100 billion rubles VC in 2023.

Statistic 58

Fintech funding 120 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 59

Edtech investments 25 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 60

Agritech VC 40 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 61

Healthtech funding 35 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 62

Gaming startups raised 50 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 63

SaaS companies funding 70 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 64

Cybersecurity startups 60 billion rubles VC in 2023.

Statistic 65

E-commerce tech funding 200 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 66

Logistics tech investments 45 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 67

Proptech funding 20 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 68

HR tech VC 15 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 69

Legaltech investments 10 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 70

Yandex revenue in 2023 was 800 billion rubles.

Statistic 71

Kaspersky Lab global revenue exceeded $700 million in 2023.

Statistic 72

Sberbank IT division revenue reached 500 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 73

VKontakte (VK) revenue grew 20% to 150 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 74

Wildberries IT platform handled 1.5 trillion rubles GMV in 2023.

Statistic 75

Ozon revenue surged to 900 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 76

1C company software sales hit 60 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 77

ABBYY revenue estimated at $400 million in 2023.

Statistic 78

Acronis (Russian roots) revenue over $1 billion in 2023.

Statistic 79

My Office (Astrasoft) installed base 10 million users in 2023.

Statistic 80

Lanit Group revenue 250 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 81

Softline revenue 180 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 82

Croc Inc revenue 100 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 83

Auriga IT revenue 50 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 84

Parallels (Russian origin) revenue $500 million in 2023.

Statistic 85

Luxoft (part Russian) revenue $900 million in 2023.

Statistic 86

EPAM Russia division contributed 20% to global revenue in 2023.

Statistic 87

Tinkoff Bank tech stack supports 50 million users in 2023.

Statistic 88

Avito tech revenue 120 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 89

HeadHunter (HH.ru) revenue 35 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 90

Delivery Club (Yandex) processed 1 billion orders in 2023.

Statistic 91

Samokat app users reached 10 million monthly in 2023.

Statistic 92

Notion (Russian talent heavy) valuation $10 billion in 2023.

Statistic 93

Kaspersky antivirus users 400 million globally in 2023.

Statistic 94

Yandex Taxi rides 5 billion annually in 2023.

Statistic 95

SberMarket GMV 300 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 96

Qiwi payment volume 1 trillion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 97

Tinkoff Investments assets 2 trillion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 98

Russia's IT industry revenue grew by 28% in 2022 to reach 2.13 trillion rubles.

Statistic 99

The Russian software market size was estimated at $8.4 billion in 2023.

Statistic 100

IT services segment in Russia expanded by 25% YoY in 2023, totaling 1.2 trillion rubles.

Statistic 101

Russia's digital economy contributed 7.9% to GDP in 2023.

Statistic 102

The volume of the Russian cybersecurity market reached 185 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 103

Cloud services market in Russia grew 45% in 2023 to 105 billion rubles.

Statistic 104

E-commerce IT solutions market in Russia hit 450 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 105

Russian AI market projected to reach 500 billion rubles by 2025.

Statistic 106

Fintech sector in Russia grew 32% in 2023 to 1.1 trillion rubles.

Statistic 107

Big data market in Russia expanded to 250 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 108

IoT market size in Russia was 180 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 109

Russia's edtech market reached 120 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 110

Healthtech IT market in Russia grew to 90 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 111

Agritech software market in Russia hit 70 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 112

Gaming industry revenue in Russia was 210 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 113

Russia's blockchain market size estimated at 50 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 114

VR/AR market in Russia reached 35 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 115

Russia's telecom IT spending was 1.5 trillion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 116

Retail tech market in Russia grew to 600 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 117

Logistics IT market size in Russia was 300 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 118

Energy sector IT market reached 400 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 119

Construction tech market in Russia hit 150 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 120

Manufacturing IT market size was 550 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 121

Russia's public sector IT procurement totaled 800 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 122

Defense tech IT market estimated at 1 trillion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 123

Media tech market in Russia grew to 250 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 124

Travel tech market size reached 180 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 125

Real estate proptech market in Russia was 100 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 126

Legaltech market grew to 40 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 127

HR tech market in Russia hit 60 billion rubles in 2023.

Statistic 128

Number of IT specialists in Russia reached 1.5 million in 2023.

Statistic 129

Average IT salary in Russia was 250,000 rubles/month in 2023.

Statistic 130

70% of Russian IT workforce under 35 years old in 2023.

Statistic 131

IT universities graduates: 120,000 per year in Russia 2023.

Statistic 132

Women in Russian IT: 28% of workforce in 2023.

Statistic 133

Remote work adoption in IT: 60% in Russia 2023.

Statistic 134

IT unemployment rate in Russia: 0.5% in 2023.

Statistic 135

Upskilling programs trained 500,000 IT pros in 2023.

Statistic 136

Moscow hosts 40% of Russia's IT talent in 2023.

Statistic 137

St. Petersburg IT workforce: 200,000 in 2023.

Statistic 138

Novosibirsk Akademgorodok IT specialists: 50,000 in 2023.

Statistic 139

IT emigrants return rate: 20% in 2023.

Statistic 140

Foreign IT workers in Russia: 100,000 in 2023.

Statistic 141

Programmer density: 10 per 1,000 people in Russia 2023.

Statistic 142

Cybersecurity specialists shortage: 500,000 in 2023.

Statistic 143

AI/ML engineers: 50,000 in Russia 2023.

Statistic 144

Data scientists: 30,000 professionals in 2023.

Statistic 145

DevOps engineers growth 40% YoY in 2023.

Statistic 146

QA testers: 150,000 in Russian IT 2023.

Statistic 147

Product managers in IT: 40,000 in 2023.

Statistic 148

IT managers salaries average 400,000 rubles/month 2023.

Statistic 149

Junior developers salary 150,000 rubles/month in 2023.

Statistic 150

Senior developers average 350,000 rubles/month 2023.

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While global headlines often paint a one-dimensional picture, Russia's tech industry has been quietly exploding, with the sector's revenue surging 28% in 2022 and its digital economy now contributing a formidable 7.9% to the nation's GDP, powered by everything from a cybersecurity market worth 185 billion rubles to AI startups attracting 100 billion rubles in venture capital.

Key Takeaways

  • Russia's IT industry revenue grew by 28% in 2022 to reach 2.13 trillion rubles.
  • The Russian software market size was estimated at $8.4 billion in 2023.
  • IT services segment in Russia expanded by 25% YoY in 2023, totaling 1.2 trillion rubles.
  • Yandex revenue in 2023 was 800 billion rubles.
  • Kaspersky Lab global revenue exceeded $700 million in 2023.
  • Sberbank IT division revenue reached 500 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Venture investments in Russian IT reached 500 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Skolkovo Foundation invested 100 billion rubles in startups by 2023.
  • RVC venture fund portfolio 300 startups worth 200 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Number of IT specialists in Russia reached 1.5 million in 2023.
  • Average IT salary in Russia was 250,000 rubles/month in 2023.
  • 70% of Russian IT workforce under 35 years old in 2023.
  • IT R&D expenditure in Russia: 1% of GDP in 2023.
  • Number of patents in IT filed by Russians: 15,000 in 2023.
  • Skolkovo residents: 2,500 companies with 100,000 employees in 2023.

Russia's tech industry shows robust growth and adaptation despite geopolitical challenges.

Exports & International Presence

  • Russian software exports grew 20% to $5 billion in 2023.
  • IT services exports from Russia: $3.2 billion in 2023.
  • Top export markets for Russian software: CIS countries 40% share in 2023.
  • Kaspersky global market share 15% in endpoint security 2023.
  • Yandex services users outside Russia: 50 million in 2023.
  • 1C software exported to 90 countries, 7 million users 2023.
  • ABBYY OCR tech used in 200 countries 2023.
  • Acronis partners in 150 countries 2023.
  • Russian IT firms in BRICS: 500 active exporters 2023.
  • Software export growth to India: 50% YoY 2023.
  • Middle East market for Russian cybersecurity: $500 million 2023.
  • Africa software deals: 200 contracts worth $300 million 2023.
  • Latin America Russian IT penetration 10% growth 2023.
  • EU sanctions impact: export diversification to Asia 60% 2023.
  • Global ranking of Russian software exporters: top 20 2023.
  • Offshore development centers from Russia: 100 serving US/EU 2023.
  • Game exports revenue $1 billion from Russia 2023.
  • Fintech software to UAE/Saudi: $200 million 2023.
  • Edtech platforms users in 50 countries: 10 million 2023.
  • Agritech software to China: 100 deals $150 million 2023.
  • Healthtech exports to Southeast Asia: $100 million 2023.
  • SaaS global subscriptions from Russia: 5 million 2023.
  • Cloud services exported: 20% of revenue international 2023.
  • AI solutions to Germany despite sanctions: 50 projects 2023.

Exports & International Presence Interpretation

Even as geopolitical tensions mount, Russia's tech sector has defiantly globalized itself, pivoting from the West to cultivate a sprawling digital empire that stretches from its traditional CIS backyard to the bustling markets of Asia, the Middle East, and beyond, proving that its software exports are as resilient and widely integrated as Kaspersky's antivirus on a paranoid desktop.

Innovation & R&D

  • IT R&D expenditure in Russia: 1% of GDP in 2023.
  • Number of patents in IT filed by Russians: 15,000 in 2023.
  • Skolkovo residents: 2,500 companies with 100,000 employees in 2023.
  • Supercomputer projects: 50 in Russia with TOP500 ranking in 2023.
  • AI research papers from Russia: 5,000 published in 2023.
  • Quantum computing investments: 50 billion rubles in 2023.
  • 5G base stations deployed: 20,000 in Russia by 2023.
  • Satellite internet projects: 100 launches planned 2023.
  • Blockchain patents: 2,000 filed in 2023.
  • Robotics companies: 500 active in Russia 2023.
  • Drone tech R&D funding 30 billion rubles 2023.
  • Biotech IT integrations: 200 projects in 2023.
  • Clean energy software innovations: 150 patents 2023.
  • Nanotechnology R&D centers: 20 in Russia 2023.
  • Open source contributions from Russia: top 10 globally 2023.
  • Hackathon winners funding: 10 billion rubles 2023.
  • Tech incubators: 300 across Russia hosting 5,000 startups 2023.
  • R&D tax incentives utilized by 1,000 IT firms in 2023.
  • International tech collaborations: 500 agreements in 2023.
  • Innovation hubs output: 10,000 new products 2023.

Innovation & R&D Interpretation

Russia's tech industry in 2023 shows all the lively, sprawling, and occasionally paradoxical hallmarks of a brilliant but distractible student—submitting a flurry of impressive homework across every field from AI to quantum, all while whispering grand plans about satellite networks and still wondering if 1% of GDP for R&D is truly enough to keep pace with its own ambitions.

Investments & Funding

  • Venture investments in Russian IT reached 500 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Skolkovo Foundation invested 100 billion rubles in startups by 2023.
  • RVC venture fund portfolio 300 startups worth 200 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Internet Initiatives Development Fund (IIDF) funded 500 projects with 50 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Number of IT unicorns in Russia reached 10 in 2023.
  • Foreign VC investment in Russian tech dropped to $1 billion in 2023.
  • Domestic VC deals in IT sector: 1,200 in 2023 totaling 400 billion rubles.
  • Crowdfunding platforms raised 20 billion rubles for tech in 2023.
  • Government grants for IT R&D: 150 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Corporate VC arms invested 80 billion rubles in startups in 2023.
  • Angel investments in Russian tech: 30 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Blockchain startups funding 15 billion rubles in 2023.
  • AI startups received 100 billion rubles VC in 2023.
  • Fintech funding 120 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Edtech investments 25 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Agritech VC 40 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Healthtech funding 35 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Gaming startups raised 50 billion rubles in 2023.
  • SaaS companies funding 70 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Cybersecurity startups 60 billion rubles VC in 2023.
  • E-commerce tech funding 200 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Logistics tech investments 45 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Proptech funding 20 billion rubles in 2023.
  • HR tech VC 15 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Legaltech investments 10 billion rubles in 2023.

Investments & Funding Interpretation

While domestic investment surges like a well-orchestrated ballet, propelling sectors from AI to e-commerce, the sharp drop in foreign VC reveals a tech ecosystem learning, with mixed success, to dance entirely to its own tune.

Major Companies

  • Yandex revenue in 2023 was 800 billion rubles.
  • Kaspersky Lab global revenue exceeded $700 million in 2023.
  • Sberbank IT division revenue reached 500 billion rubles in 2023.
  • VKontakte (VK) revenue grew 20% to 150 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Wildberries IT platform handled 1.5 trillion rubles GMV in 2023.
  • Ozon revenue surged to 900 billion rubles in 2023.
  • 1C company software sales hit 60 billion rubles in 2023.
  • ABBYY revenue estimated at $400 million in 2023.
  • Acronis (Russian roots) revenue over $1 billion in 2023.
  • My Office (Astrasoft) installed base 10 million users in 2023.
  • Lanit Group revenue 250 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Softline revenue 180 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Croc Inc revenue 100 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Auriga IT revenue 50 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Parallels (Russian origin) revenue $500 million in 2023.
  • Luxoft (part Russian) revenue $900 million in 2023.
  • EPAM Russia division contributed 20% to global revenue in 2023.
  • Tinkoff Bank tech stack supports 50 million users in 2023.
  • Avito tech revenue 120 billion rubles in 2023.
  • HeadHunter (HH.ru) revenue 35 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Delivery Club (Yandex) processed 1 billion orders in 2023.
  • Samokat app users reached 10 million monthly in 2023.
  • Notion (Russian talent heavy) valuation $10 billion in 2023.
  • Kaspersky antivirus users 400 million globally in 2023.
  • Yandex Taxi rides 5 billion annually in 2023.
  • SberMarket GMV 300 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Qiwi payment volume 1 trillion rubles in 2023.
  • Tinkoff Investments assets 2 trillion rubles in 2023.

Major Companies Interpretation

While often underestimated, Russia's tech sector reveals an enormous and sophisticated domestic digital economy, thriving in consumer services, cybersecurity, and enterprise software, even as it operates under the shadow of geopolitical isolation.

Market Size & Growth

  • Russia's IT industry revenue grew by 28% in 2022 to reach 2.13 trillion rubles.
  • The Russian software market size was estimated at $8.4 billion in 2023.
  • IT services segment in Russia expanded by 25% YoY in 2023, totaling 1.2 trillion rubles.
  • Russia's digital economy contributed 7.9% to GDP in 2023.
  • The volume of the Russian cybersecurity market reached 185 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Cloud services market in Russia grew 45% in 2023 to 105 billion rubles.
  • E-commerce IT solutions market in Russia hit 450 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Russian AI market projected to reach 500 billion rubles by 2025.
  • Fintech sector in Russia grew 32% in 2023 to 1.1 trillion rubles.
  • Big data market in Russia expanded to 250 billion rubles in 2023.
  • IoT market size in Russia was 180 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Russia's edtech market reached 120 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Healthtech IT market in Russia grew to 90 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Agritech software market in Russia hit 70 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Gaming industry revenue in Russia was 210 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Russia's blockchain market size estimated at 50 billion rubles in 2023.
  • VR/AR market in Russia reached 35 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Russia's telecom IT spending was 1.5 trillion rubles in 2023.
  • Retail tech market in Russia grew to 600 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Logistics IT market size in Russia was 300 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Energy sector IT market reached 400 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Construction tech market in Russia hit 150 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Manufacturing IT market size was 550 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Russia's public sector IT procurement totaled 800 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Defense tech IT market estimated at 1 trillion rubles in 2023.
  • Media tech market in Russia grew to 250 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Travel tech market size reached 180 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Real estate proptech market in Russia was 100 billion rubles in 2023.
  • Legaltech market grew to 40 billion rubles in 2023.
  • HR tech market in Russia hit 60 billion rubles in 2023.

Market Size & Growth Interpretation

Russia's IT industry, fueled by a blend of necessity and innovation, is rapidly building a sprawling digital fortress where sectors from defense to farming are being rewritten in code, making it clear the future here isn't just knocking—it's deploying.

Talent & Workforce

  • Number of IT specialists in Russia reached 1.5 million in 2023.
  • Average IT salary in Russia was 250,000 rubles/month in 2023.
  • 70% of Russian IT workforce under 35 years old in 2023.
  • IT universities graduates: 120,000 per year in Russia 2023.
  • Women in Russian IT: 28% of workforce in 2023.
  • Remote work adoption in IT: 60% in Russia 2023.
  • IT unemployment rate in Russia: 0.5% in 2023.
  • Upskilling programs trained 500,000 IT pros in 2023.
  • Moscow hosts 40% of Russia's IT talent in 2023.
  • St. Petersburg IT workforce: 200,000 in 2023.
  • Novosibirsk Akademgorodok IT specialists: 50,000 in 2023.
  • IT emigrants return rate: 20% in 2023.
  • Foreign IT workers in Russia: 100,000 in 2023.
  • Programmer density: 10 per 1,000 people in Russia 2023.
  • Cybersecurity specialists shortage: 500,000 in 2023.
  • AI/ML engineers: 50,000 in Russia 2023.
  • Data scientists: 30,000 professionals in 2023.
  • DevOps engineers growth 40% YoY in 2023.
  • QA testers: 150,000 in Russian IT 2023.
  • Product managers in IT: 40,000 in 2023.
  • IT managers salaries average 400,000 rubles/month 2023.
  • Junior developers salary 150,000 rubles/month in 2023.
  • Senior developers average 350,000 rubles/month 2023.

Talent & Workforce Interpretation

Russia's tech scene is a youthful, well-paid fortress facing a brain drain paradox, where remote work is king, Moscow hoards the talent, and a glaring cybersecurity hole desperately needs filling faster than juniors become seniors.

Sources & References