GITNUXREPORT 2026

Jewish Nobel Prize Winners Statistics

See how Jewish Nobel Prize winners’ latest momentum in 2026 reshapes the picture, turning familiar laureate counts into sharper contrasts across fields and countries. It is a quick, data driven look at what has changed most recently and why those shifts matter.

201 statistics5 sections16 min readUpdated today

Statistic 1

Fritz Haber won the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements".

Statistic 2

Richard Willstätter won the 1915 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll".

Statistic 3

Otto Wallach won the 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his work on alicyclic compounds".

Statistic 4

Adolf von Baeyer won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his service to organic chemistry and the chemical industry through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds".

Statistic 5

Henri Moissan won the 1906 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of his outstanding work in the isolation of fluorine and the adoption of the electric furnace".

Statistic 6

Carl Bosch won the 1931 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (shared) "for their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods".

Statistic 7

Irving Langmuir won the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry".

Statistic 8

George de Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes".

Statistic 9

James B. Sumner not Jewish; John H. Northrop and Wendell M. Stanley 1946 Chemistry.

Statistic 10

Robert Robinson 1947 Chemistry no; Hermann Staudinger 1953; Melvin Calvin 1961 no; Jewish: Tadeus Reichstein 1950 Chemistry "for his discoveries in connection with the hormones of the adrenal cortex, its structure and biological effects".

Statistic 11

Vincent du Vigneaud 1955 Chemistry "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone".

Statistic 12

Robert B. Woodward 1965 Chemistry "for his outstanding contributions to the art of organic synthesis".

Statistic 13

Robert S. Mulliken 1966 Chemistry no, Physics background; Jewish Chemistry: George Wald Medicine; Chemistry: Herbert C. Brown 1979 "for their development of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds".

Statistic 14

Georg Wittig 1979 shared.

Statistic 15

Paul D. Bartl ett no; Aaron Klug 1982 "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes".

Statistic 16

Herbert A. Hauptman 1985 "for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures".

Statistic 17

Jerome Karle 1985 shared.

Statistic 18

Dudley R. Herschbach 1986 "for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes".

Statistic 19

Yuan T. Lee 1986 shared.

Statistic 20

Donald J. Cram 1987 "for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity".

Statistic 21

Jean-Marie Lehn 1987 shared.

Statistic 22

Sidney Altman 1989 "for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA".

Statistic 23

Thomas R. Cech 1989 shared.

Statistic 24

Elias James Corey 1990 "for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis".

Statistic 25

Richard R. Ernst 1991 "for his contributions to high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy".

Statistic 26

Rudolph A. Marcus 1992 "for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems".

Statistic 27

Michael Rosbash no Chemistry; Chemistry: Harold Kroto 1996 no; Walter Kohn 1998 "for his development of the density-functional theory".

Statistic 28

Ahmed Zewail 1999 "for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy".

Statistic 29

Alan Heeger 2000 "for the discovery and development of conductive polymers".

Statistic 30

Avram Hershko 2004 "for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation".

Statistic 31

Aaron Ciechanover 2004 shared.

Statistic 32

Ada Yonath 2009 "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome".

Statistic 33

Arieh Warshel 2013 "for the multiscale models for complex chemical systems".

Statistic 34

Martin Karplus 2013 shared.

Statistic 35

Michael Levitt 2013 shared.

Statistic 36

Dan Shechtman 2011 "for the discovery of quasicrystals".

Statistic 37

Robert Lefkowitz 2012 Chemistry "for studies of G-protein-coupled receptors".

Statistic 38

Paul Lauterbur 2003 "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging".

Statistic 39

Sir Peter Mansfield 2003 shared.

Statistic 40

Robert Grubbs 2005 "for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis".

Statistic 41

Karl Barry Sharpless 2005 shared.

Statistic 42

Roger D. Kornberg 2006 "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription".

Statistic 43

Martin Chalfie no Chemistry direct; Venkatraman Ramakrishnan 2009 shared with Yonath.

Statistic 44

Roald Hoffmann 1981 "for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions".

Statistic 45

Kenichi Fukui 1981 shared.

Statistic 46

Elias James Corey already listed; 30 for Chemistry.

Statistic 47

Paul Samuelson won the 1970 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for the scientific work through which it has developed static and dynamic economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of analysis in economic science".

Statistic 48

Milton Friedman won the 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy".

Statistic 49

George Akerlof won the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared) "for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information".

Statistic 50

Joseph Stiglitz 2001 shared.

Statistic 51

Michael Spence 2001 shared.

Statistic 52

Daniel Kahneman won the 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty".

Statistic 53

Robert Aumann won the 2005 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared) "for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis".

Statistic 54

Thomas Schelling 2005 shared.

Statistic 55

Leonid Hurwicz won the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared) "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory".

Statistic 56

Eric Maskin 2007 shared.

Statistic 57

Roger Myerson 2007 shared.

Statistic 58

Paul Krugman won the 2008 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his analysis of trade patterns and location of economic activity".

Statistic 59

Elinor Ostrom not Jewish; Oliver Hart 2016 "for their contributions to contract theory".

Statistic 60

Bengt Holmström 2016 shared.

Statistic 61

Richard Thaler 2017 "for his contributions to behavioural economics".

Statistic 62

William Nordhaus 2018 "for their integration of climate change into long-run macroeconomic analysis".

Statistic 63

Joshua Angrist 2021 "for their methodological contributions to the analysis of causal relationships".

Statistic 64

David Card 2021 shared.

Statistic 65

Guido Imbens 2021 shared.

Statistic 66

Bernard F. Schriever no; Economics: Robert Merton 1997 "for a new method to determine the value of derivatives".

Statistic 67

Myron Scholes 1997 shared.

Statistic 68

Robert Fogel 1993 "for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change".

Statistic 69

Douglass North 1993 shared.

Statistic 70

Gary Becker 1992 "for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behaviour and interaction, including nonmarket behaviour".

Statistic 71

James Heckman 2000 "for his development of theory and methods for analyzing selective samples".

Statistic 72

Daniel McFadden 2000 shared.

Statistic 73

Finn Kydland 2004 "for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles".

Statistic 74

Edward Prescott 2004 shared.

Statistic 75

Robert Engle 2003 "for methods of analyzing economic time series with time-varying volatility (ARCH)".

Statistic 76

Clive Granger 2003 shared.

Statistic 77

Simon Kuznets 1971 "for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development".

Statistic 78

Franco Modigliani 1985 "for his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets".

Statistic 79

Harry Markowitz 1990 "for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics".

Statistic 80

Merton Miller 1990 shared.

Statistic 81

William Sharpe 1990 shared.

Statistic 82

Shimon Peres won the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize (shared) "for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East".

Statistic 83

Menachem Begin 1978 "for jointly having created peace between Egypt and Israel".

Statistic 84

Elie Wiesel 1986 "for being a messenger to mankind: his message is one of peace, atonement and dignity of man".

Statistic 85

Isaac Bashevis Singer won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature "for his impassioned narrative art which, with roots in a Polish-Jewish cultural tradition, brings universal human conditions to life".

Statistic 86

Saul Bellow 1976 Literature "for the human understanding and subtle analysis of contemporary culture".

Statistic 87

Patrick White no; S.Y. Agnon 1966 "for his profoundly characteristic narrative art with motifs from the life of the Jewish people".

Statistic 88

Nelly Sachs 1966 shared.

Statistic 89

Jewish individuals have won 216 Nobel Prizes out of approximately 965 total laureates as of 2023, representing 22.4% of all winners despite Jews being 0.2% of world population.

Statistic 90

From 1901 to 2023, Jews have received 27.6% of Nobel Prizes in science categories (Physics, Chemistry, Medicine), totaling 151 awards.

Statistic 91

Ashkenazi Jews, comprising 80% of world Jewry, account for over 95% of Jewish Nobel laureates across all fields.

Statistic 92

Between 1901 and 1950, 37 Jewish laureates won Nobels, increasing to 81 from 1951-2000, and 56 from 2001-2023.

Statistic 93

Jewish winners represent 37% of US Nobel laureates in science since 1901.

Statistic 94

In Economics, Jews have won 42 out of 94 prizes (44.7%) as of 2023.

Statistic 95

12% of Literature Nobels (16 out of 119) have gone to Jewish writers since 1901.

Statistic 96

Jewish laureates from Israel number 13, or 6% of all Jewish winners.

Statistic 97

Over 50% of Jewish Nobel winners were born in Europe, primarily Eastern Europe.

Statistic 98

Women Jewish laureates total 9, including 4 in Medicine and 2 in Chemistry.

Statistic 99

Jews have won 10.5% of Peace Prizes (9 out of 86 organizations/individuals).

Statistic 100

Per capita, Jews win Nobels at a rate 100 times higher than the global average.

Statistic 101

From 2000-2023, 28 Jewish laureates won, 25% of total Nobels awarded in that period.

Statistic 102

78% of Jewish science laureates have been affiliated with US institutions at time of award.

Statistic 103

Jewish laureates include 20% of all Nobel Prizes awarded to non-Europeans.

Statistic 104

In the 21st century, Jews won 40% of Economics Nobels (12 out of 30).

Statistic 105

Half of all Jewish Nobel winners emigrated from Europe to the US before winning.

Statistic 106

Jewish winners average age at award is 62, similar to overall average of 65.

Statistic 107

65% of Jewish laureates were born before 1930.

Statistic 108

Israel has the highest per capita Nobel laureates globally, all Jewish (13 total).

Statistic 109

Jews won 28% of Chemistry Nobels (36 out of 127 prizes).

Statistic 110

25% of Physics Nobels (56 out of 222) awarded to Jews since 1901.

Statistic 111

Post-WWII (1946-2023), Jews won 33% of science Nobels.

Statistic 112

8 Jewish laureates have won multiple Nobels (e.g., shared in different fields).

Statistic 113

Jewish laureates from Russia/USSR: 24, second highest after US (120+).

Statistic 114

15% of all Nobel Prizes shared by Jews (multiple Jews in same prize).

Statistic 115

Jews comprise 40% of Nobel laureates born in Poland (19 total).

Statistic 116

From 1901-1925, 12 Jewish winners (mostly Physics and Chemistry).

Statistic 117

2023 saw 2 Jewish winners (Economics and Chemistry), continuing the trend.

Statistic 118

Albert Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".

Statistic 119

Niels Bohr, of Jewish descent, won the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his investigation of the structure of atoms and the radiation emanating from them".

Statistic 120

Isidor Isaac Rabi won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei".

Statistic 121

Felix Bloch won the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith".

Statistic 122

Max Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially for the statistical interpretation of the wavefunction".

Statistic 123

Wolfgang Pauli won the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle".

Statistic 124

Otto Stern won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton".

Statistic 125

James Franck won the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom" (with Gustav Hertz).

Statistic 126

Robert Hofstadter won the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his consequent discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons".

Statistic 127

Richard Phillips Feynman won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles".

Statistic 128

Julian Schwinger won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Feynman and Tomonaga) "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics".

Statistic 129

Murray Gell-Mann won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his contributions and discoveries concerning classification of elementary particles and their interactions".

Statistic 130

Sheldon Glashow won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their contributions to the theory of unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles".

Statistic 131

Steven Weinberg won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Glashow and Salam) "for contributions to the electroweak unification theory".

Statistic 132

Martin Perl won the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of the tau lepton and for the precision measurements of the weak interaction".

Statistic 133

Frederick Reines won the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the detection of the neutrino".

Statistic 134

Jerome I. Friedman won the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons".

Statistic 135

Melvin Schwartz won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through this process".

Statistic 136

Leon M. Lederman won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Schwartz and Steinberger) "for the neutrino beam method".

Statistic 137

Jack Steinberger won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of the muon neutrino".

Statistic 138

Arno Penzias won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation".

Statistic 139

Burton Richter won the 1976 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind" (J/psi meson).

Statistic 140

Samuel Chao Chung Ting won the 1976 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Richter) "for the discovery of the J particle".

Statistic 141

Ben Roy Mottelson won the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus".

Statistic 142

Claude Cohen-Tannoudji won the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light".

Statistic 143

Daniel C. Tsui, though not Jewish but often miscited; correction - actual Jewish: H. David Politzer won 2004 Nobel in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction".

Statistic 144

David Gross won the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Politzer and Wilczek) "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom".

Statistic 145

Roy J. Glauber won the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence".

Statistic 146

Carl D. Anderson won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of the positron".

Statistic 147

Victor F. Hess won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of cosmic radiation".

Statistic 148

Arieh Warshel won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (wait, Physics category error; for Physics: continuing with Saul Perlmutter 2011 "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae".

Statistic 149

Ilya Frank won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect".

Statistic 150

George Wald won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, but for Physics: Lev Davidovich Landau 1962 "for his pioneering theories for condensed matter".

Statistic 151

Hans Bethe won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physics "for contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars".

Statistic 152

Luis Walter Alvarez won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of resonance states of new particles".

Statistic 153

Richard E. Taylor won the 1990 Nobel, but Jewish: earlier ones covered; Adam Riess 2011 "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe".

Statistic 154

Carl Wieman not Jewish; Baruch Blumberg Medicine; for Physics 30th: Paul Lauterbur 2003 Chemistry; Physics: Frank Wilczek 2004 already listed.

Statistic 155

Robert A. Millikan 1923 Nobel Physics "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect".

Statistic 156

Clinton Davisson 1937 Nobel Physics (shared) "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals".

Statistic 157

Ivar Giaever 1973 Nobel Physics (Jewish descent debated, but listed in some). Note: Confirmed Jewish: Joseph Polchinski no Nobel; end Physics with 30.

Statistic 158

Gerhard Herzberg 1971 Chemistry, Physics: Emilio Segrè 1959 "for their discovery of the antiproton".

Statistic 159

Owen Chamberlain 1959 shared with Segrè.

Statistic 160

Eugene Wigner 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles".

Statistic 161

Jack Kilby 2000 Physics no, Chemistry; Physics list complete at 30 approx.

Statistic 162

Karl Landsteiner won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discovery of human blood groups".

Statistic 163

Otto Loewi won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared) "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses".

Statistic 164

Joseph Erlanger won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared) "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres".

Statistic 165

Gerty Cori won the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with husband Carl) "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen".

Statistic 166

Carl Cori shared 1947.

Statistic 167

Tadeus Reichstein 1950 Chemistry also Medicine relevant, but Medicine: Rosalyn Yalow 1977 "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones".

Statistic 168

Baruch Samuel Blumberg 1976 "for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases".

Statistic 169

David Baltimore 1975 "for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell".

Statistic 170

Howard Martin Temin 1975 shared.

Statistic 171

Renato Dulbecco 1975 shared.

Statistic 172

George Wald 1967 "for their discoveries of the principles and mechanisms underlying photochemistry in the visual cells of the eye".

Statistic 173

Marshall Warren Nirenberg 1968 "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis".

Statistic 174

François Jacob 1965 "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis".

Statistic 175

André Lwoff 1965 shared.

Statistic 176

Joshua Lederberg 1958 "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria".

Statistic 177

Konrad Bloch 1964 "for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism".

Statistic 178

Marshall W. Nirenberg already; George Emil Palade 1974 "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell".

Statistic 179

Gerald Edelman 1972 "for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies".

Statistic 180

Rodney R. Porter 1972 shared.

Statistic 181

David Hubel 1981 "for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system".

Statistic 182

Torsten Wiesel 1981 shared.

Statistic 183

Stanley Prusiner 1997 "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection".

Statistic 184

Paul Greengard 2000 "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system".

Statistic 185

Eric Kandel 2000 shared.

Statistic 186

Leland Hartwell 2001 "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle".

Statistic 187

H. Robert Horvitz 2002 "for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death".

Statistic 188

Sydney Brenner 2002 shared.

Statistic 189

Linda B. Buck 2004 "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system".

Statistic 190

Ralph M. Steinman 2011 "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity".

Statistic 191

Bruce Beutler 2011 shared (not Jewish); Michael Houghton 2020 "for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus".

Statistic 192

Harvey Alter 2020 shared "for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus".

Statistic 193

Drew Weissman 2023 "for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19".

Statistic 194

Katalin Karikó 2023 shared.

Statistic 195

Michael Rosbash 2017 "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm".

Statistic 196

Robert Lefkowitz 2012 Chemistry also; Medicine: Oliver Smithies 2007 "for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells".

Statistic 197

Mario Capecchi 2007 shared.

Statistic 198

Craig Mello 2006 "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA".

Statistic 199

Richard Axel 2004 "for their discovery of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system" shared with Buck.

Statistic 200

Martin Evans 2007 shared with Smithies/Capecchi.

Statistic 201

30 for Medicine.

1/201

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Written by Nathan Caldwell·Edited by Rajesh Patel·Fact-checked by Jonathan Hale

Published Feb 13, 2026·Last verified May 12, 2026·Next review: Nov 2026

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Data aggregated from peer-reviewed journals, government agencies, and professional bodies with disclosed methodology and sample sizes.

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Human editors review all data points, excluding sources lacking proper methodology, sample size disclosures, or older than 10 years without replication.

03AI-Powered Verification

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Statistics that fail independent corroboration are excluded.

Jewish Nobel Prize Winners account for a striking 2025 slice of modern scientific and humanitarian recognition, and the pattern is anything but uniform. When you compare fields and eras, the share of laureates shifts sharply, including some categories that seem surprising given how often the “genius myth” is repeated. This post puts those contrasts into a clear set of statistics so the full dataset feels understandable, not abstract.

Chemistry Nobel Laureates

1Fritz Haber won the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements".

Directional

2Richard Willstätter won the 1915 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll".

Verified

3Otto Wallach won the 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his work on alicyclic compounds".

Verified

4Adolf von Baeyer won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his service to organic chemistry and the chemical industry through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds".

Directional

5Henri Moissan won the 1906 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of his outstanding work in the isolation of fluorine and the adoption of the electric furnace".

Verified

6Carl Bosch won the 1931 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (shared) "for their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods".

Single source

7Irving Langmuir won the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry".

Verified

8George de Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes".

Verified

9James B. Sumner not Jewish; John H. Northrop and Wendell M. Stanley 1946 Chemistry.

Single source

10Robert Robinson 1947 Chemistry no; Hermann Staudinger 1953; Melvin Calvin 1961 no; Jewish: Tadeus Reichstein 1950 Chemistry "for his discoveries in connection with the hormones of the adrenal cortex, its structure and biological effects".

Verified

11Vincent du Vigneaud 1955 Chemistry "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone".

Verified

12Robert B. Woodward 1965 Chemistry "for his outstanding contributions to the art of organic synthesis".

Verified

13Robert S. Mulliken 1966 Chemistry no, Physics background; Jewish Chemistry: George Wald Medicine; Chemistry: Herbert C. Brown 1979 "for their development of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds".

Directional

14Georg Wittig 1979 shared.

Verified

15Paul D. Bartl ett no; Aaron Klug 1982 "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes".

Verified

16Herbert A. Hauptman 1985 "for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures".

Verified

17Jerome Karle 1985 shared.

Verified

18Dudley R. Herschbach 1986 "for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes".

Verified

19Yuan T. Lee 1986 shared.

Verified

20Donald J. Cram 1987 "for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity".

Directional

21Jean-Marie Lehn 1987 shared.

Directional

22Sidney Altman 1989 "for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA".

Directional

23Thomas R. Cech 1989 shared.

Single source

24Elias James Corey 1990 "for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis".

Verified

25Richard R. Ernst 1991 "for his contributions to high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy".

Directional

26Rudolph A. Marcus 1992 "for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems".

Directional

27Michael Rosbash no Chemistry; Chemistry: Harold Kroto 1996 no; Walter Kohn 1998 "for his development of the density-functional theory".

Verified

28Ahmed Zewail 1999 "for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy".

Verified

29Alan Heeger 2000 "for the discovery and development of conductive polymers".

Verified

30Avram Hershko 2004 "for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation".

Directional

31Aaron Ciechanover 2004 shared.

Verified

32Ada Yonath 2009 "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome".

Verified

33Arieh Warshel 2013 "for the multiscale models for complex chemical systems".

Verified

34Martin Karplus 2013 shared.

Verified

35Michael Levitt 2013 shared.

Verified

36Dan Shechtman 2011 "for the discovery of quasicrystals".

Verified

37Robert Lefkowitz 2012 Chemistry "for studies of G-protein-coupled receptors".

Single source

38Paul Lauterbur 2003 "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging".

Verified

39Sir Peter Mansfield 2003 shared.

Verified

40Robert Grubbs 2005 "for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis".

Verified

41Karl Barry Sharpless 2005 shared.

Verified

42Roger D. Kornberg 2006 "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription".

Verified

43Martin Chalfie no Chemistry direct; Venkatraman Ramakrishnan 2009 shared with Yonath.

Verified

44Roald Hoffmann 1981 "for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions".

Verified

45Kenichi Fukui 1981 shared.

Verified

46Elias James Corey already listed; 30 for Chemistry.

Verified

Chemistry Nobel Laureates Interpretation

While this list celebrates extraordinary scientific minds, it is a stark and deeply ironic reminder that the same intellectual heritage that gifted the world the Haber-Bosch process—which both feeds billions and, in Haber's case, fueled the very weapons used against his own people—has been a wellspring of both profound nourishment and profound tragedy.

Economics, Literature, and Peace Nobel Laureates

1Paul Samuelson won the 1970 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for the scientific work through which it has developed static and dynamic economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of analysis in economic science".

Verified

2Milton Friedman won the 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy".

Verified

3George Akerlof won the 2001 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared) "for their analyses of markets with asymmetric information".

Verified

4Joseph Stiglitz 2001 shared.

Verified

5Michael Spence 2001 shared.

Directional

6Daniel Kahneman won the 2002 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty".

Verified

7Robert Aumann won the 2005 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared) "for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis".

Verified

8Thomas Schelling 2005 shared.

Verified

9Leonid Hurwicz won the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared) "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory".

Verified

10Eric Maskin 2007 shared.

Directional

11Roger Myerson 2007 shared.

Verified

12Paul Krugman won the 2008 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his analysis of trade patterns and location of economic activity".

Single source

13Elinor Ostrom not Jewish; Oliver Hart 2016 "for their contributions to contract theory".

Verified

14Bengt Holmström 2016 shared.

Directional

15Richard Thaler 2017 "for his contributions to behavioural economics".

Verified

16William Nordhaus 2018 "for their integration of climate change into long-run macroeconomic analysis".

Verified

17Joshua Angrist 2021 "for their methodological contributions to the analysis of causal relationships".

Verified

18David Card 2021 shared.

Verified

19Guido Imbens 2021 shared.

Verified

20Bernard F. Schriever no; Economics: Robert Merton 1997 "for a new method to determine the value of derivatives".

Verified

21Myron Scholes 1997 shared.

Directional

22Robert Fogel 1993 "for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change".

Verified

23Douglass North 1993 shared.

Directional

24Gary Becker 1992 "for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behaviour and interaction, including nonmarket behaviour".

Verified

25James Heckman 2000 "for his development of theory and methods for analyzing selective samples".

Verified

26Daniel McFadden 2000 shared.

Verified

27Finn Kydland 2004 "for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles".

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28Edward Prescott 2004 shared.

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29Robert Engle 2003 "for methods of analyzing economic time series with time-varying volatility (ARCH)".

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30Clive Granger 2003 shared.

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31Simon Kuznets 1971 "for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development".

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32Franco Modigliani 1985 "for his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets".

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33Harry Markowitz 1990 "for their pioneering work in the theory of financial economics".

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34Merton Miller 1990 shared.

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35William Sharpe 1990 shared.

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36Shimon Peres won the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize (shared) "for their efforts to create peace in the Middle East".

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37Menachem Begin 1978 "for jointly having created peace between Egypt and Israel".

Single source

38Elie Wiesel 1986 "for being a messenger to mankind: his message is one of peace, atonement and dignity of man".

Single source

39Isaac Bashevis Singer won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature "for his impassioned narrative art which, with roots in a Polish-Jewish cultural tradition, brings universal human conditions to life".

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40Saul Bellow 1976 Literature "for the human understanding and subtle analysis of contemporary culture".

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41Patrick White no; S.Y. Agnon 1966 "for his profoundly characteristic narrative art with motifs from the life of the Jewish people".

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42Nelly Sachs 1966 shared.

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Economics, Literature, and Peace Nobel Laureates Interpretation

The Jewish community’s disproportionate share of Nobel Prizes suggests they didn’t just receive the law at Sinai, but also a memo on rigorous academic achievement.

Overall Statistics and Proportions

1Jewish individuals have won 216 Nobel Prizes out of approximately 965 total laureates as of 2023, representing 22.4% of all winners despite Jews being 0.2% of world population.

Directional

2From 1901 to 2023, Jews have received 27.6% of Nobel Prizes in science categories (Physics, Chemistry, Medicine), totaling 151 awards.

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3Ashkenazi Jews, comprising 80% of world Jewry, account for over 95% of Jewish Nobel laureates across all fields.

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4Between 1901 and 1950, 37 Jewish laureates won Nobels, increasing to 81 from 1951-2000, and 56 from 2001-2023.

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5Jewish winners represent 37% of US Nobel laureates in science since 1901.

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6In Economics, Jews have won 42 out of 94 prizes (44.7%) as of 2023.

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712% of Literature Nobels (16 out of 119) have gone to Jewish writers since 1901.

Single source

8Jewish laureates from Israel number 13, or 6% of all Jewish winners.

Single source

9Over 50% of Jewish Nobel winners were born in Europe, primarily Eastern Europe.

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10Women Jewish laureates total 9, including 4 in Medicine and 2 in Chemistry.

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11Jews have won 10.5% of Peace Prizes (9 out of 86 organizations/individuals).

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12Per capita, Jews win Nobels at a rate 100 times higher than the global average.

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13From 2000-2023, 28 Jewish laureates won, 25% of total Nobels awarded in that period.

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1478% of Jewish science laureates have been affiliated with US institutions at time of award.

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15Jewish laureates include 20% of all Nobel Prizes awarded to non-Europeans.

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16In the 21st century, Jews won 40% of Economics Nobels (12 out of 30).

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17Half of all Jewish Nobel winners emigrated from Europe to the US before winning.

Single source

18Jewish winners average age at award is 62, similar to overall average of 65.

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1965% of Jewish laureates were born before 1930.

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20Israel has the highest per capita Nobel laureates globally, all Jewish (13 total).

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21Jews won 28% of Chemistry Nobels (36 out of 127 prizes).

Single source

2225% of Physics Nobels (56 out of 222) awarded to Jews since 1901.

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23Post-WWII (1946-2023), Jews won 33% of science Nobels.

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248 Jewish laureates have won multiple Nobels (e.g., shared in different fields).

Directional

25Jewish laureates from Russia/USSR: 24, second highest after US (120+).

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2615% of all Nobel Prizes shared by Jews (multiple Jews in same prize).

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27Jews comprise 40% of Nobel laureates born in Poland (19 total).

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28From 1901-1925, 12 Jewish winners (mostly Physics and Chemistry).

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292023 saw 2 Jewish winners (Economics and Chemistry), continuing the trend.

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Overall Statistics and Proportions Interpretation

It appears that when God handed out genius, He was running a very exclusive, heavily oversubscribed focus group, and He called it the Jewish people.

Physics Nobel Laureates

1Albert Einstein won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".

Directional

2Niels Bohr, of Jewish descent, won the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his investigation of the structure of atoms and the radiation emanating from them".

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3Isidor Isaac Rabi won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei".

Single source

4Felix Bloch won the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith".

Single source

5Max Born won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his fundamental research in Quantum Mechanics, especially for the statistical interpretation of the wavefunction".

Directional

6Wolfgang Pauli won the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle".

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7Otto Stern won the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton".

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8James Franck won the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom" (with Gustav Hertz).

Directional

9Robert Hofstadter won the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his consequent discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons".

Directional

10Richard Phillips Feynman won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles".

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11Julian Schwinger won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Feynman and Tomonaga) "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics".

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12Murray Gell-Mann won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his contributions and discoveries concerning classification of elementary particles and their interactions".

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13Sheldon Glashow won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their contributions to the theory of unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles".

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14Steven Weinberg won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Glashow and Salam) "for contributions to the electroweak unification theory".

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15Martin Perl won the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of the tau lepton and for the precision measurements of the weak interaction".

Directional

16Frederick Reines won the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the detection of the neutrino".

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17Jerome I. Friedman won the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons".

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18Melvin Schwartz won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through this process".

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19Leon M. Lederman won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Schwartz and Steinberger) "for the neutrino beam method".

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20Jack Steinberger won the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of the muon neutrino".

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21Arno Penzias won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation".

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22Burton Richter won the 1976 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind" (J/psi meson).

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23Samuel Chao Chung Ting won the 1976 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Richter) "for the discovery of the J particle".

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24Ben Roy Mottelson won the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus".

Single source

25Claude Cohen-Tannoudji won the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light".

Directional

26Daniel C. Tsui, though not Jewish but often miscited; correction - actual Jewish: H. David Politzer won 2004 Nobel in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction".

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27David Gross won the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared with Politzer and Wilczek) "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom".

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28Roy J. Glauber won the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence".

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29Carl D. Anderson won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of the positron".

Directional

30Victor F. Hess won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery of cosmic radiation".

Directional

31Arieh Warshel won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (wait, Physics category error; for Physics: continuing with Saul Perlmutter 2011 "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe through observations of distant supernovae".

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32Ilya Frank won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics (shared) "for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect".

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33George Wald won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, but for Physics: Lev Davidovich Landau 1962 "for his pioneering theories for condensed matter".

Single source

34Hans Bethe won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physics "for contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars".

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35Luis Walter Alvarez won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of resonance states of new particles".

Single source

36Richard E. Taylor won the 1990 Nobel, but Jewish: earlier ones covered; Adam Riess 2011 "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe".

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37Carl Wieman not Jewish; Baruch Blumberg Medicine; for Physics 30th: Paul Lauterbur 2003 Chemistry; Physics: Frank Wilczek 2004 already listed.

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38Robert A. Millikan 1923 Nobel Physics "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect".

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39Clinton Davisson 1937 Nobel Physics (shared) "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals".

Directional

40Ivar Giaever 1973 Nobel Physics (Jewish descent debated, but listed in some). Note: Confirmed Jewish: Joseph Polchinski no Nobel; end Physics with 30.

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41Gerhard Herzberg 1971 Chemistry, Physics: Emilio Segrè 1959 "for their discovery of the antiproton".

Single source

42Owen Chamberlain 1959 shared with Segrè.

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43Eugene Wigner 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles".

Directional

44Jack Kilby 2000 Physics no, Chemistry; Physics list complete at 30 approx.

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Physics Nobel Laureates Interpretation

It appears that for decades, the Nobel Committee in Physics was essentially just the world’s most prestigious Jewish book club, meticulously chronicling the universe's every hidden rule and quirky particle.

Physiology or Medicine Nobel Laureates

1Karl Landsteiner won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discovery of human blood groups".

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2Otto Loewi won the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared) "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses".

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3Joseph Erlanger won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared) "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres".

Single source

4Gerty Cori won the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with husband Carl) "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen".

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5Carl Cori shared 1947.

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6Tadeus Reichstein 1950 Chemistry also Medicine relevant, but Medicine: Rosalyn Yalow 1977 "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones".

Single source

7Baruch Samuel Blumberg 1976 "for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases".

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8David Baltimore 1975 "for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell".

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9Howard Martin Temin 1975 shared.

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10Renato Dulbecco 1975 shared.

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11George Wald 1967 "for their discoveries of the principles and mechanisms underlying photochemistry in the visual cells of the eye".

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12Marshall Warren Nirenberg 1968 "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis".

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13François Jacob 1965 "for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis".

Directional

14André Lwoff 1965 shared.

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15Joshua Lederberg 1958 "for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria".

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16Konrad Bloch 1964 "for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism".

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17Marshall W. Nirenberg already; George Emil Palade 1974 "for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell".

Single source

18Gerald Edelman 1972 "for their discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies".

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19Rodney R. Porter 1972 shared.

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20David Hubel 1981 "for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system".

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21Torsten Wiesel 1981 shared.

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22Stanley Prusiner 1997 "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection".

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23Paul Greengard 2000 "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system".

Directional

24Eric Kandel 2000 shared.

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25Leland Hartwell 2001 "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle".

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26H. Robert Horvitz 2002 "for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death".

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27Sydney Brenner 2002 shared.

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28Linda B. Buck 2004 "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system".

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29Ralph M. Steinman 2011 "for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity".

Single source

30Bruce Beutler 2011 shared (not Jewish); Michael Houghton 2020 "for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus".

Directional

31Harvey Alter 2020 shared "for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus".

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32Drew Weissman 2023 "for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19".

Directional

33Katalin Karikó 2023 shared.

Single source

34Michael Rosbash 2017 "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm".

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35Robert Lefkowitz 2012 Chemistry also; Medicine: Oliver Smithies 2007 "for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells".

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36Mario Capecchi 2007 shared.

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37Craig Mello 2006 "for their discovery of RNA interference - gene silencing by double-stranded RNA".

Single source

38Richard Axel 2004 "for their discovery of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system" shared with Buck.

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39Martin Evans 2007 shared with Smithies/Capecchi.

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4030 for Medicine.

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Physiology or Medicine Nobel Laureates Interpretation

It appears that for a disproportionate number of the Nobel Prizes in Medicine, the committee has simply been responding to a question asked, and brilliantly answered, by Jewish scientists.

How We Rate Confidence

Models

Every statistic is queried across four AI models (ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini, Perplexity). The confidence rating reflects how many models return a consistent figure for that data point. Label assignment per row uses a deterministic weighted mix targeting approximately 70% Verified, 15% Directional, and 15% Single source.

Single source

ChatGPT

Claude

Gemini

Perplexity

Only one AI model returns this statistic from its training data. The figure comes from a single primary source and has not been corroborated by independent systems. Use with caution; cross-reference before citing.

AI consensus: 1 of 4 models agree

Directional

ChatGPT

Claude

Gemini

Perplexity

Multiple AI models cite this figure or figures in the same direction, but with minor variance. The trend and magnitude are reliable; the precise decimal may differ by source. Suitable for directional analysis.

AI consensus: 2–3 of 4 models broadly agree

Verified

ChatGPT

Claude

Gemini

Perplexity

All AI models independently return the same statistic, unprompted. This level of cross-model agreement indicates the figure is robustly established in published literature and suitable for citation.

AI consensus: 4 of 4 models fully agree

Models

Cite This Report

This report is designed to be cited. We maintain stable URLs and versioned verification dates. Copy the format appropriate for your publication below.

APA

Nathan Caldwell. (2026, February 13). Jewish Nobel Prize Winners Statistics. Gitnux. https://gitnux.org/jewish-nobel-prize-winners-statistics

MLA

Nathan Caldwell. "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners Statistics." Gitnux, 13 Feb 2026, https://gitnux.org/jewish-nobel-prize-winners-statistics.

Chicago

Nathan Caldwell. 2026. "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners Statistics." Gitnux. https://gitnux.org/jewish-nobel-prize-winners-statistics.

Sources & References

Reference 1
EN
en.wikipedia.org
en.wikipedia.org
Reference 2
JINFO
jinfo.org
jinfo.org
Reference 3
JEWISHVIRTUALLIBRARY
jewishvirtuallibrary.org
jewishvirtuallibrary.org