GITNUXREPORT 2026

China Religion Statistics

China's religious landscape is vast and diverse, yet a majority of its population is not formally affiliated.

Jannik Lindner

Co-Founder of Gitnux, specialized in content and tech since 2016.

First published: Feb 13, 2026

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Statistic 1

China has over 144,000 registered religious venues for 200 million believers as of 2018.

Statistic 2

Han Chinese Buddhism followers number 200 million, practicing Mahayana traditions primarily.

Statistic 3

There are 28,000 registered Buddhist temples in China, housing 120,000 monks and nuns in 2020.

Statistic 4

Shaolin Temple attracts 2.5 million visitors annually, boosting Buddhist tourism.

Statistic 5

In 2019, Buddhist associations reported 300 million lay practitioners engaging in rituals.

Statistic 6

Tibetan Buddhism has 6 million monks and nuns in monasteries across Tibet and inland.

Statistic 7

Putuo Shan, a sacred Buddhist island, receives 10 million pilgrims yearly.

Statistic 8

The Buddhist canon in Chinese libraries holds over 10,000 volumes from Tang dynasty.

Statistic 9

18% of Chinese burn incense for Buddha monthly, per 2021 survey.

Statistic 10

Emeishan has 76 monasteries with 500 resident clergy.

Statistic 11

Wutaishan, sacred to Manjushri, hosts 50 temples and 2,000 monks.

Statistic 12

Jiuhuashan Buddhist site has 90 temples for Ksitigarbha worship.

Statistic 13

In 2022, online Buddhist lectures reached 50 million views monthly.

Statistic 14

The Buddhist Association of China has 56,000 member temples registered.

Statistic 15

Theravada Buddhism practiced by 1 million Dai people in Yunnan.

Statistic 16

During COVID, 70% of Buddhists shifted to virtual chanting apps.

Statistic 17

Falun Gong, rooted in Buddhism, claims 100 million practitioners pre-ban.

Statistic 18

2023 restoration of 500 ancient Buddhist sites funded by government.

Statistic 19

Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou serves 5 million visitors, largest urban monastery.

Statistic 20

Guangxiao Temple, oldest in South China, dates to 302 AD.

Statistic 21

Bai ethnic group in Dali practices 95% Pure Land Buddhism.

Statistic 22

Annual Buddhist festival in Wuxi draws 1 million chanters.

Statistic 23

40% of Chinese New Year rituals include Buddhist elements.

Statistic 24

Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, UNESCO site, central to 7 million Tibetans' faith.

Statistic 25

Samye Monastery, first in Tibet, trains 1,000 novice monks yearly.

Statistic 26

25% of Buddhist donations go to education programs in 2022.

Statistic 27

Chinese Buddhism influences 15% of global Mahayana diaspora.

Statistic 28

12,000 vegetarian restaurants run by Buddhists nationwide.

Statistic 29

Mount Jiuhua's 1,000 monks preserve 300-year chanting traditions.

Statistic 30

Christian population in China estimated at 70-100 million in 2023, with 60 million Protestants and 12 million Catholics.

Statistic 31

There are over 60,000 registered Protestant churches and 7,000 Catholic churches in China as of 2022.

Statistic 32

House churches number 50,000-100,000, serving 30-50 million unregistered believers.

Statistic 33

Shanghai's Moore Memorial Church, largest Protestant, seats 1,800 worshippers weekly.

Statistic 34

Beijing's Haidian Church hosts 20,000 members in services.

Statistic 35

Growth of Christianity averaged 10% annually from 1979-2010.

Statistic 36

5% of urban professionals identify as Christian in 2021 surveys.

Statistic 37

Wenzhou, "China's Jerusalem," has 1,700 churches for 1.2 million Christians.

Statistic 38

Three-Self Patriotic Movement oversees 23 million Protestants officially.

Statistic 39

Catholic Patriotic Association claims 6 million members.

Statistic 40

Bible sales reached 100 million copies since 1980s.

Statistic 41

300 seminaries train 5,000 pastors yearly.

Statistic 42

Henan province has 10 million Christians, highest provincial figure.

Statistic 43

Online Christian apps have 20 million downloads in China.

Statistic 44

Charismatic/Pentecostal Christians number 30 million.

Statistic 45

70% of Christians are women, per 2018 studies.

Statistic 46

Fangcheng Fellowship, largest house church network, claims 8 million.

Statistic 47

2023 saw 500 new church constructions approved.

Statistic 48

Christian universities like Yanjing Theological Seminary train 1,000 students.

Statistic 49

15% of Chinese Christians converted via family ties.

Statistic 50

Underground Bible printing produces 3 million annually.

Statistic 51

Hangzhou's Gongyi Church megachurch has 100,000 members.

Statistic 52

40% of Christians under 35, youth surge.

Statistic 53

Demolitions affected 2,000 crosses in Zhejiang 2014-2016.

Statistic 54

Muslim population stable at 23 million, including 10 million Hui and 11 million Uyghur, per 2020 estimates.

Statistic 55

There are 39,000 registered mosques in China, 25,000 in Xinjiang alone.

Statistic 56

Hui Muslims number 10.5 million, practicing Hanafi Sunni Islam.

Statistic 57

Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang comprise 46% of regional population, 11 million.

Statistic 58

China Islamic Association oversees 35 million believers claimed.

Statistic 59

Niujie Mosque in Beijing, oldest, serves 10,000 weekly.

Statistic 60

Cow Street Mosque founded in 996 AD, largest in capital.

Statistic 61

Ramadan fasting observed by 90% of practicing Muslims.

Statistic 62

1,500 Hui villages maintain halal food chains nationwide.

Statistic 63

Linxia, "Little Mecca," has 300 mosques for 1 million Hui.

Statistic 64

Kashgar's Id Kah Mosque accommodates 20,000 for Friday prayers.

Statistic 65

Uyghur madrasas trained 50,000 students pre-2017.

Statistic 66

70% of Chinese Muslims are Sufi-influenced in northwest.

Statistic 67

Halal certification covers 100,000 products annually.

Statistic 68

Hajj pilgrimage quotas: 14,500 Chinese Muslims annually pre-COVID.

Statistic 69

Dongxiang Muslims, 600,000, speak unique language, Sunni.

Statistic 70

Salar Muslims in Qinghai, 130,000, trace Persian origins.

Statistic 71

2023 mosque renovations: 8,000 sites upgraded.

Statistic 72

Bonan Muslims, 20,000 in Gansu, blacksmith community.

Statistic 73

Utsul Muslims in Hainan, 6,000 Cham descendants.

Statistic 74

Tatar Muslims, 3,500 in Xinjiang, Russian-origin.

Statistic 75

Security measures closed 65% of rural mosques in Xinjiang by 2018.

Statistic 76

Islamic finance grows with 50 Sharia-compliant banks.

Statistic 77

80% of Muslims use Arabic-script Qurans printed locally.

Statistic 78

As of 2020, approximately 52.1% of China's adult population reported no formal religious affiliation, equating to over 600 million people, based on a comprehensive survey of religious beliefs.

Statistic 79

In 2018, the Chinese government estimated that there were about 244 million religious believers in China, representing 17.4% of the total population of 1.4 billion.

Statistic 80

A 2014 Gallup poll indicated that 73% of Chinese adults do not identify with any religion, while 21% consider themselves religious to some degree.

Statistic 81

According to the 2020 Chinese General Social Survey, 15.9% of respondents self-identified as Buddhist, totaling around 225 million adults.

Statistic 82

In 2012, a study by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences found that 33% of the population practiced folk religions, including ancestor worship, affecting over 400 million people.

Statistic 83

The 2010 Chinese census indirectly showed that registered religious venues served about 7% of the population formally, but informal practice is much higher.

Statistic 84

A 2018 WIN/Gallup International survey reported that 90% of Chinese respondents identified as "convinced atheists" or "not religious."

Statistic 85

In urban areas of China, only 10.5% of residents reported regular religious participation in 2019, per a Peking University study.

Statistic 86

Rural China sees 25% higher rates of religious identification than urban areas, with 22% folk religion adherents in 2021 surveys.

Statistic 87

Among China's 1.41 billion people in 2023, youth under 30 show only 5% religious affiliation, compared to 20% for those over 60.

Statistic 88

Women in China are 1.5 times more likely to identify as religious than men, with 12% vs 8% in 2018 national polls.

Statistic 89

Han Chinese, 91.5% of population, have 14% religious adherents, while minorities have 40%.

Statistic 90

In 2022, online religious participation in China reached 15 million users monthly, indicating growing digital affiliation.

Statistic 91

The number of officially registered religious believers grew from 100 million in 2000 to 200 million in 2018.

Statistic 92

85% of Chinese engage in some spiritual practices like burning incense, even if not formally affiliated, per 2015 survey.

Statistic 93

In 2019, 28% of Chinese reported belief in Buddha or bodhisattvas, up from 18% in 2007.

Statistic 94

Self-reported Taoist identification stands at 7.6% nationally, or about 107 million, in 2020 CGSS data.

Statistic 95

Christian self-identification rose to 5.1% or 70 million in 2018 surveys among adults.

Statistic 96

Muslim population estimated at 21-25 million, or 1.8% of total, stable since 2010.

Statistic 97

In 2021, 4.3% identified with other religions including shamanism in ethnic areas.

Statistic 98

Guangdong province has the highest religious diversity, with 25% adherents vs national 18%.

Statistic 99

Shanghai's religious affiliation rate is lowest at 8%, due to urbanization.

Statistic 100

In Tibet, 90% identify as Buddhist, highest regional rate.

Statistic 101

Xinjiang Uyghurs show 99% Muslim identification.

Statistic 102

Among overseas Chinese, religious affiliation jumps to 30%.

Statistic 103

Post-1949, religious population dropped from 30% to under 10% officially by 1970s.

Statistic 104

2023 surveys show 12% increase in religious curiosity among millennials.

Statistic 105

61% of Chinese believe in feng shui, blending with religion.

Statistic 106

Only 3% attend religious services weekly, lowest globally.

Statistic 107

2022 data: 144 million formally registered across five religions.

Statistic 108

Taoist population self-identifies at 12 million registered adherents in 2018 government census.

Statistic 109

There are 9,000 registered Taoist temples across China, primarily in southern provinces.

Statistic 110

Wudang Mountains host 53 Taoist palaces and temples with 2,000 clergy.

Statistic 111

Longhu Mountain, cradle of Celestial Masters Taoism, has 36 caves and 99 peaks sacred.

Statistic 112

Qingcheng Mountain Taoist site preserves 1,500-year-old traditions with 50 priests.

Statistic 113

Maoshan, center of Shangqing Taoism, trains 200 disciples annually.

Statistic 114

Taoist rituals performed for 80% of Chinese funerals, blending with folk practices.

Statistic 115

Chinese Taoist Association oversees 6,800 venues and 25,000 clergy.

Statistic 116

Qiyun Mountain has 17 caves used for alchemy practices historically.

Statistic 117

70% of Taoists practice qigong as core spiritual exercise daily.

Statistic 118

Taoist New Year festivals attract 5 million in Jiangxi province alone.

Statistic 119

Dragon Boat Festival rooted in Taoist deity worship by 60% participants.

Statistic 120

Taoism influences 40% of traditional Chinese medicine practices.

Statistic 121

Hua Shan Taoist cliffs host perilous pilgrimage climbed by 3 million yearly.

Statistic 122

Zhengyi Taoism dominant in 80% of southern temples.

Statistic 123

Quanzhen Taoism has 1,200 monasteries nationwide.

Statistic 124

Taoist talismans used by 25% of population for protection.

Statistic 125

2022 saw restoration of 200 Taoist heritage sites.

Statistic 126

Laozi's birthplace temple in Henan draws 4 million pilgrims.

Statistic 127

Tai Shan summit temple performs 10,000 rituals yearly.

Statistic 128

15% of urban Chinese consult Taoist feng shui masters annually.

Statistic 129

Dragon Tiger Mountain ordains 300 new priests per year.

Statistic 130

Taoist music ensembles number 500 active groups.

Statistic 131

90% of Taoist scriptures digitized in national library by 2023.

Statistic 132

Mount Wangwu has 72 caves for hermitage practices.

Statistic 133

Folk Taoism blends with 50% of village deity worship.

1/133

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Contrary to the popular image of a deeply spiritual society, modern China is a nation of staggering religious complexity, where over six hundred million adults claim no formal faith yet ancient rituals still permeate daily life.

Key Takeaways

As of 2020, approximately 52.1% of China's adult population reported no formal religious affiliation, equating to over 600 million people, based on a comprehensive survey of religious beliefs.
In 2018, the Chinese government estimated that there were about 244 million religious believers in China, representing 17.4% of the total population of 1.4 billion.
A 2014 Gallup poll indicated that 73% of Chinese adults do not identify with any religion, while 21% consider themselves religious to some degree.
China has over 144,000 registered religious venues for 200 million believers as of 2018.
Han Chinese Buddhism followers number 200 million, practicing Mahayana traditions primarily.
There are 28,000 registered Buddhist temples in China, housing 120,000 monks and nuns in 2020.
Taoist population self-identifies at 12 million registered adherents in 2018 government census.
There are 9,000 registered Taoist temples across China, primarily in southern provinces.
Wudang Mountains host 53 Taoist palaces and temples with 2,000 clergy.
Christian population in China estimated at 70-100 million in 2023, with 60 million Protestants and 12 million Catholics.
There are over 60,000 registered Protestant churches and 7,000 Catholic churches in China as of 2022.
House churches number 50,000-100,000, serving 30-50 million unregistered believers.
Muslim population stable at 23 million, including 10 million Hui and 11 million Uyghur, per 2020 estimates.
There are 39,000 registered mosques in China, 25,000 in Xinjiang alone.
Hui Muslims number 10.5 million, practicing Hanafi Sunni Islam.

China's religious landscape is vast and diverse, yet a majority of its population is not formally affiliated.

Buddhism

China has over 144,000 registered religious venues for 200 million believers as of 2018.
Han Chinese Buddhism followers number 200 million, practicing Mahayana traditions primarily.
There are 28,000 registered Buddhist temples in China, housing 120,000 monks and nuns in 2020.
Shaolin Temple attracts 2.5 million visitors annually, boosting Buddhist tourism.
In 2019, Buddhist associations reported 300 million lay practitioners engaging in rituals.
Tibetan Buddhism has 6 million monks and nuns in monasteries across Tibet and inland.
Putuo Shan, a sacred Buddhist island, receives 10 million pilgrims yearly.
The Buddhist canon in Chinese libraries holds over 10,000 volumes from Tang dynasty.
18% of Chinese burn incense for Buddha monthly, per 2021 survey.
Emeishan has 76 monasteries with 500 resident clergy.
Wutaishan, sacred to Manjushri, hosts 50 temples and 2,000 monks.
Jiuhuashan Buddhist site has 90 temples for Ksitigarbha worship.
In 2022, online Buddhist lectures reached 50 million views monthly.
The Buddhist Association of China has 56,000 member temples registered.
Theravada Buddhism practiced by 1 million Dai people in Yunnan.
During COVID, 70% of Buddhists shifted to virtual chanting apps.
Falun Gong, rooted in Buddhism, claims 100 million practitioners pre-ban.
2023 restoration of 500 ancient Buddhist sites funded by government.
Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou serves 5 million visitors, largest urban monastery.
Guangxiao Temple, oldest in South China, dates to 302 AD.
Bai ethnic group in Dali practices 95% Pure Land Buddhism.
Annual Buddhist festival in Wuxi draws 1 million chanters.
40% of Chinese New Year rituals include Buddhist elements.
Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, UNESCO site, central to 7 million Tibetans' faith.
Samye Monastery, first in Tibet, trains 1,000 novice monks yearly.
25% of Buddhist donations go to education programs in 2022.
Chinese Buddhism influences 15% of global Mahayana diaspora.
12,000 vegetarian restaurants run by Buddhists nationwide.
Mount Jiuhua's 1,000 monks preserve 300-year chanting traditions.

Buddhism Interpretation

China's official Buddhist landscape, with its 200 million followers and meticulously registered temples, presents a formidable spiritual infrastructure, yet the sheer scale of its rituals, digital reach, and tourist pilgrimage reveals a faith that has dynamically overflowed the state's ledgers to remain a deeply ingrained cultural force.

Christianity

Christian population in China estimated at 70-100 million in 2023, with 60 million Protestants and 12 million Catholics.
There are over 60,000 registered Protestant churches and 7,000 Catholic churches in China as of 2022.
House churches number 50,000-100,000, serving 30-50 million unregistered believers.
Shanghai's Moore Memorial Church, largest Protestant, seats 1,800 worshippers weekly.
Beijing's Haidian Church hosts 20,000 members in services.
Growth of Christianity averaged 10% annually from 1979-2010.
5% of urban professionals identify as Christian in 2021 surveys.
Wenzhou, "China's Jerusalem," has 1,700 churches for 1.2 million Christians.
Three-Self Patriotic Movement oversees 23 million Protestants officially.
Catholic Patriotic Association claims 6 million members.
Bible sales reached 100 million copies since 1980s.
300 seminaries train 5,000 pastors yearly.
Henan province has 10 million Christians, highest provincial figure.
Online Christian apps have 20 million downloads in China.
Charismatic/Pentecostal Christians number 30 million.
70% of Christians are women, per 2018 studies.
Fangcheng Fellowship, largest house church network, claims 8 million.
2023 saw 500 new church constructions approved.
Christian universities like Yanjing Theological Seminary train 1,000 students.
15% of Chinese Christians converted via family ties.
Underground Bible printing produces 3 million annually.
Hangzhou's Gongyi Church megachurch has 100,000 members.
40% of Christians under 35, youth surge.
Demolitions affected 2,000 crosses in Zhejiang 2014-2016.

Christianity Interpretation

While China officially counts its Christian flocks in the millions within registered pens, the sheer scale of unofficial house churches, underground printing, and youthful fervor suggests the spiritual herd is far larger and more restless than any statistic can corral.

Islam

Muslim population stable at 23 million, including 10 million Hui and 11 million Uyghur, per 2020 estimates.
There are 39,000 registered mosques in China, 25,000 in Xinjiang alone.
Hui Muslims number 10.5 million, practicing Hanafi Sunni Islam.
Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang comprise 46% of regional population, 11 million.
China Islamic Association oversees 35 million believers claimed.
Niujie Mosque in Beijing, oldest, serves 10,000 weekly.
Cow Street Mosque founded in 996 AD, largest in capital.
Ramadan fasting observed by 90% of practicing Muslims.
1,500 Hui villages maintain halal food chains nationwide.
Linxia, "Little Mecca," has 300 mosques for 1 million Hui.
Kashgar's Id Kah Mosque accommodates 20,000 for Friday prayers.
Uyghur madrasas trained 50,000 students pre-2017.
70% of Chinese Muslims are Sufi-influenced in northwest.
Halal certification covers 100,000 products annually.
Hajj pilgrimage quotas: 14,500 Chinese Muslims annually pre-COVID.
Dongxiang Muslims, 600,000, speak unique language, Sunni.
Salar Muslims in Qinghai, 130,000, trace Persian origins.
2023 mosque renovations: 8,000 sites upgraded.
Bonan Muslims, 20,000 in Gansu, blacksmith community.
Utsul Muslims in Hainan, 6,000 Cham descendants.
Tatar Muslims, 3,500 in Xinjiang, Russian-origin.
Security measures closed 65% of rural mosques in Xinjiang by 2018.
Islamic finance grows with 50 Sharia-compliant banks.
80% of Muslims use Arabic-script Qurans printed locally.

Islam Interpretation

While officially boasting a robust infrastructure and vibrant diversity within its Muslim communities, China's parallel narrative of mass surveillance and closure in Xinjiang presents a stark contradiction between protected practice and pervasive control.

Population and Affiliation

As of 2020, approximately 52.1% of China's adult population reported no formal religious affiliation, equating to over 600 million people, based on a comprehensive survey of religious beliefs.
In 2018, the Chinese government estimated that there were about 244 million religious believers in China, representing 17.4% of the total population of 1.4 billion.
A 2014 Gallup poll indicated that 73% of Chinese adults do not identify with any religion, while 21% consider themselves religious to some degree.
According to the 2020 Chinese General Social Survey, 15.9% of respondents self-identified as Buddhist, totaling around 225 million adults.
In 2012, a study by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences found that 33% of the population practiced folk religions, including ancestor worship, affecting over 400 million people.
The 2010 Chinese census indirectly showed that registered religious venues served about 7% of the population formally, but informal practice is much higher.
A 2018 WIN/Gallup International survey reported that 90% of Chinese respondents identified as "convinced atheists" or "not religious."
In urban areas of China, only 10.5% of residents reported regular religious participation in 2019, per a Peking University study.
Rural China sees 25% higher rates of religious identification than urban areas, with 22% folk religion adherents in 2021 surveys.
Among China's 1.41 billion people in 2023, youth under 30 show only 5% religious affiliation, compared to 20% for those over 60.
Women in China are 1.5 times more likely to identify as religious than men, with 12% vs 8% in 2018 national polls.
Han Chinese, 91.5% of population, have 14% religious adherents, while minorities have 40%.
In 2022, online religious participation in China reached 15 million users monthly, indicating growing digital affiliation.
The number of officially registered religious believers grew from 100 million in 2000 to 200 million in 2018.
85% of Chinese engage in some spiritual practices like burning incense, even if not formally affiliated, per 2015 survey.
In 2019, 28% of Chinese reported belief in Buddha or bodhisattvas, up from 18% in 2007.
Self-reported Taoist identification stands at 7.6% nationally, or about 107 million, in 2020 CGSS data.
Christian self-identification rose to 5.1% or 70 million in 2018 surveys among adults.
Muslim population estimated at 21-25 million, or 1.8% of total, stable since 2010.
In 2021, 4.3% identified with other religions including shamanism in ethnic areas.
Guangdong province has the highest religious diversity, with 25% adherents vs national 18%.
Shanghai's religious affiliation rate is lowest at 8%, due to urbanization.
In Tibet, 90% identify as Buddhist, highest regional rate.
Xinjiang Uyghurs show 99% Muslim identification.
Among overseas Chinese, religious affiliation jumps to 30%.
Post-1949, religious population dropped from 30% to under 10% officially by 1970s.
2023 surveys show 12% increase in religious curiosity among millennials.
61% of Chinese believe in feng shui, blending with religion.
Only 3% attend religious services weekly, lowest globally.
2022 data: 144 million formally registered across five religions.

Population and Affiliation Interpretation

China's spiritual landscape is a sprawling, often contradictory tapestry where hundreds of millions practice ancient folk traditions or private rituals without formal labels, while state statistics count a sharply defined, but growing, flock of registered believers, revealing a nation not so much godless as deeply pragmatic and resistant to easy categorization.

Taoism

Taoist population self-identifies at 12 million registered adherents in 2018 government census.
There are 9,000 registered Taoist temples across China, primarily in southern provinces.
Wudang Mountains host 53 Taoist palaces and temples with 2,000 clergy.
Longhu Mountain, cradle of Celestial Masters Taoism, has 36 caves and 99 peaks sacred.
Qingcheng Mountain Taoist site preserves 1,500-year-old traditions with 50 priests.
Maoshan, center of Shangqing Taoism, trains 200 disciples annually.
Taoist rituals performed for 80% of Chinese funerals, blending with folk practices.
Chinese Taoist Association oversees 6,800 venues and 25,000 clergy.
Qiyun Mountain has 17 caves used for alchemy practices historically.
70% of Taoists practice qigong as core spiritual exercise daily.
Taoist New Year festivals attract 5 million in Jiangxi province alone.
Dragon Boat Festival rooted in Taoist deity worship by 60% participants.
Taoism influences 40% of traditional Chinese medicine practices.
Hua Shan Taoist cliffs host perilous pilgrimage climbed by 3 million yearly.
Zhengyi Taoism dominant in 80% of southern temples.
Quanzhen Taoism has 1,200 monasteries nationwide.
Taoist talismans used by 25% of population for protection.
2022 saw restoration of 200 Taoist heritage sites.
Laozi's birthplace temple in Henan draws 4 million pilgrims.
Tai Shan summit temple performs 10,000 rituals yearly.
15% of urban Chinese consult Taoist feng shui masters annually.
Dragon Tiger Mountain ordains 300 new priests per year.
Taoist music ensembles number 500 active groups.
90% of Taoist scriptures digitized in national library by 2023.
Mount Wangwu has 72 caves for hermitage practices.
Folk Taoism blends with 50% of village deity worship.

Taoism Interpretation

While Taoism's modest twelve million official adherents might suggest a quiet faith, its profound influence—from presiding over most Chinese funerals to shaping traditional medicine and attracting millions to its sacred peaks—reveals a philosophy deeply woven into the very fabric of the nation's spiritual and cultural landscape.