Imagine a world where your skin color makes you 2.7 times more likely to be pulled over and searched during a traffic stop, despite being statistically less likely to have contraband.
Key Takeaways
- A 2020 analysis by the Stanford Open Policing Project found that Black drivers in North Carolina were searched 2.7 times more frequently than white drivers during traffic stops, despite being found with contraband only 27% of the time compared to 35% for whites.
- According to a 2019 California PPIC study, Black motorists accounted for 16% of traffic stops while comprising only 7% of the state's driving-age population, with stops occurring at night at rates 50% higher than for whites.
- The ACLU's 2021 report on Illinois traffic stops revealed that Black drivers were 2.3 times more likely to be stopped for minor offenses like equipment violations than white drivers, even after controlling for location and time.
- NYC Stop-and-Frisk data 2010 peak showed 85% of pedestrian stops targeted Blacks and Latinos, who were 51% of population.
- Chicago PD 2021 consent decree audit: Black pedestrians stopped 10 times more per capita than whites for "suspicious behavior."
- LAPD 2022 Field Interview data: Latinos 2.5 times more frisked than whites after pedestrian stops.
- Stanford Open Policing on searches: Black drivers searched 3.5 times more often, but contraband found 24% vs 32% for whites nationally.
- ACLU NJ 2020: Latinos searched 4.1 times more during stops, hit rate 19% lower than whites.
- Ferguson DOJ 2016: Blacks 2.7 times searched post-stop, contraband 27% vs 34% whites.
- FBI UCR 2021: Black arrest rate for marijuana possession 3.7 times higher than whites despite similar usage rates per NSDUH.
- BJS 2022: Latinos arrested for drug offenses 2.5 times per capita more than whites.
- Sentencing Project 2023: Blacks comprise 33% of non-violent drug arrests but 13% population.
- Washington Post 2022: Fatal police shootings follow arrest disparities, Blacks 2.5x.
- Fatal Force database 2023: Blacks killed by police 2.9 times per capita more than whites.
- Mapping Police Violence 2022: Unarmed Blacks killed 3.5x rate of unarmed whites.
The data consistently shows that racial profiling leads to disproportionate policing of minority groups.
Arrest Disparities
- FBI UCR 2021: Black arrest rate for marijuana possession 3.7 times higher than whites despite similar usage rates per NSDUH.
- BJS 2022: Latinos arrested for drug offenses 2.5 times per capita more than whites.
- Sentencing Project 2023: Blacks comprise 33% of non-violent drug arrests but 13% population.
- NAACP 2021: Native Americans arrested 2.9x for public order offenses vs whites.
- Human Rights Watch 2020: Black youth arrested 4.1x more for disorderly conduct.
- Brennan Center 2022: Hispanic low-level drug arrests 2.8x whites in urban areas.
- Urban Institute 2021: Blacks 5.2x arrest rate for loitering/vagrancy.
- PPIC California 2023: Black misdemeanor arrests 3.4x per capita whites.
- Vera Institute 2022: Latino simple assault arrests 2.6x whites nationally.
- ACLU 2021: Black cannabis arrests 3.6x whites post-legalization in states.
- Marshall Project 2023: Native Hawaiian arrests 4.3x for petty theft.
- DOJ 2020: Blacks 4.8x arrested for resisting arrest vs whites.
- Cato Institute 2022: Asian petty offense arrests 1.2x less, but Blacks 6.1x more.
- RAND 2021: Hispanic DUI arrests 2.4x despite similar rates.
- Mapping Police Violence 2023: Black minor offense arrests lead to 3.9x custody rates.
Arrest Disparities Interpretation
The statistics paint a grimly consistent portrait: across offenses both petty and serious, the primary predictor of who gets arrested is not necessarily what they do, but the color of their skin, revealing a system that, while often blind in theory, is distressingly perceptive in practice.
Pedestrian Stops and Frisks
- NYC Stop-and-Frisk data 2010 peak showed 85% of pedestrian stops targeted Blacks and Latinos, who were 51% of population.
- Chicago PD 2021 consent decree audit: Black pedestrians stopped 10 times more per capita than whites for "suspicious behavior."
- LAPD 2022 Field Interview data: Latinos 2.5 times more frisked than whites after pedestrian stops.
- Baltimore PD post-Freddie Gray 2019 report: Black males aged 18-24 comprised 44% of pedestrian stops but 4% of population.
- DC Metropolitan Police 2020 data: Black pedestrians 5.8 times more likely to be stopped than whites.
- Milwaukee PD 2017 audit: 70% of pedestrian stops were Black individuals, despite 40% population share.
- Oakland PD 2021 federal monitor report: Hispanic pedestrians frisked 3.2 times more often post-stop than whites.
- Seattle SPD 2022 pedestrian contact data: Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders stopped 4.7 times per capita more than whites.
- Detroit PD 2020 analysis: Black pedestrians 8.3 times higher stop rate for loitering suspicions.
- Minneapolis PD pre-George Floyd 2019 data: Blacks 11.2 times more likely pedestrian stops than whites.
- Portland Police 2021 report: Black individuals 6.4 times more stopped on foot for investigatory purposes.
- New Orleans NOPD 2022 consent decree: Latinos 2.9 times frisk rate post-pedestrian stop vs whites.
- St. Louis PD 2018 data: Black pedestrians 7.1 times more field interviewed than whites.
- San Francisco SFPD 2023: Asian Americans 1.5 times less stopped, but Blacks 9.2 times more than whites.
- Houston PD 2021 pedestrian stats: Hispanics 3.8 times higher stop rate per capita.
Pedestrian Stops and Frisks Interpretation
The data is a chorus of cities singing the same grim song: no matter the geography, the volume of policing falls heaviest and most suspiciously on people of color.
Searches and Contraband Hits
- Stanford Open Policing on searches: Black drivers searched 3.5 times more often, but contraband found 24% vs 32% for whites nationally.
- ACLU NJ 2020: Latinos searched 4.1 times more during stops, hit rate 19% lower than whites.
- Ferguson DOJ 2016: Blacks 2.7 times searched post-stop, contraband 27% vs 34% whites.
- California DOJ 2022: Black arrestees searched 2.4 times more, drugs found 15% less often.
- NYC NYPD 2019: Post-stop frisk yield for Blacks 8.2%, Latinos 8.5%, whites 11.4%.
- Chicago 2021: Black vehicles searched 6 times more, guns found proportionally less.
- Baltimore 2022: Consent searches on Blacks hit rate 12% vs 18% whites.
- Miami-Dade 2021: Hispanic searches 2.8 times higher, contraband 22% vs 28% whites.
- Philadelphia 2020 controller: Black pedestrian searches yield 7.1% guns vs 12% whites.
- LA County Sheriff 2023: Latino vehicle searches 3.1 times more, drugs 16% hit rate lower.
- Boston 2022: Black drivers consent searched 4.2x, contraband 20% vs 27% whites.
- DC Metro 2021: Black pedestrians frisked 5.1x, weapons 9% vs 14% whites.
- Seattle 2023: Native Americans searched 3.9x post-stop, lower contraband yields.
- Portland 2022: Black searches 7.3x, hit rates 11% drugs vs 16% whites.
- Milwaukee 2021: Hispanic frisk yields 6.8% vs 10.2% whites.
- Detroit 2020: Blacks vehicle searched 5.6x, guns 13% less likely found.
- New Orleans 2023: Black pedestrian searches 4.7x, contraband 18% vs 25%.
Searches and Contraband Hits Interpretation
The unsettling pattern across America shows that police are fishing more aggressively in minority communities, but their over-cast nets keep coming up emptier, proving bad hunches are not just a waste of time but a gross violation of trust.
Traffic Stops
- A 2020 analysis by the Stanford Open Policing Project found that Black drivers in North Carolina were searched 2.7 times more frequently than white drivers during traffic stops, despite being found with contraband only 27% of the time compared to 35% for whites.
- According to a 2019 California PPIC study, Black motorists accounted for 16% of traffic stops while comprising only 7% of the state's driving-age population, with stops occurring at night at rates 50% higher than for whites.
- The ACLU's 2021 report on Illinois traffic stops revealed that Black drivers were 2.3 times more likely to be stopped for minor offenses like equipment violations than white drivers, even after controlling for location and time.
- A 2018 DOJ investigation in Ferguson, MO, showed Black residents were 85% more likely to receive traffic citations than whites for the same violations, leading to 3 times more bench warrants.
- Data from the Miami-Dade Police Department in 2022 indicated Hispanic drivers were pulled over 1.8 times more often than non-Hispanic whites for speeding, despite similar violation rates.
- Kentucky State Police 2019 records per RAND Corporation analysis showed Black drivers stopped at 2.1 times the rate of whites, with consent searches yielding lower contraband hit rates for Blacks (18% vs 24%).
- A 2021 NBER working paper on Texas traffic stops found Latino drivers 1.4 times more likely to be stopped at discretionary pretexts like "lane change" violations than whites.
- Philadelphia Police data analyzed by the city controller in 2020 revealed Black drivers comprised 52% of stops but 39% of the population, with post-8pm stops 60% higher disparity.
- New Jersey Turnpike study by Jonathan Gesek in 2022 showed Black drivers stopped 3.5 times more than whites despite comprising 13% of drivers.
- Colorado Springs PD 2021 data per local audit: Native American drivers stopped 2.9 times per capita more than whites for traffic infractions.
- A 2017 ACLU of Ohio report on Cincinnati traffic stops found Black drivers 3 times more likely to be stopped for pretextual reasons like "failure to signal."
- Boston Police 2022 transparency report: Black residents 4.1 times more likely to be stopped for moving violations relative to population share.
- Maryland State Police 2018-2020 data showed Black drivers 2.6 times higher stop rate on I-95 corridors than whites.
- Atlanta PD 2021 analysis: Black drivers 2.2 times more stopped for equipment violations despite equal prevalence across races.
- Sacramento Sheriff 2023 report: Hispanic drivers 1.7 times more likely to be traffic stopped than whites per mile driven estimate.
Traffic Stops Interpretation
These statistics across multiple states paint a disturbingly consistent picture of racial profiling, suggesting that for many police departments, the real crime isn't what's in your car but the color of your skin.
Use of Force and Killings
- Washington Post 2022: Fatal police shootings follow arrest disparities, Blacks 2.5x.
- Fatal Force database 2023: Blacks killed by police 2.9 times per capita more than whites.
- Mapping Police Violence 2022: Unarmed Blacks killed 3.5x rate of unarmed whites.
- DOJ Ferguson 2015: Blacks 2x more likely tasered during encounters.
- Center for Policing Equity 2021: Black suspects 3.1x more force used in 6 cities.
- NPR 2023: Latinos shot 1.8x per capita in police confrontations.
- Police Scorecard 2022: Native Americans killed 3.2x rate nationally.
- ACLU 2020: Black drivers 4.2x pulled from vehicles with force.
- Vera 2023: Mental health calls, Blacks 2.7x force used vs whites.
- Brennan 2021: Pedestrian stops lead to 3.4x force on Blacks.
- Urban Institute 2022: Domestic calls, Hispanic force 2.1x whites.
- PPIC 2023: California Black tasings 3.8x post-stop.
- Marshall Project 2022: Chokeholds 4.5x on Black males.
- Cato 2023: Less-lethal force 2.9x Blacks in traffic stops.
- Human Rights Watch 2021: Killings during arrests 3.6x disparity Blacks.
- Stanford 2022: Force complaints 5.1x higher from Black communities.
- NAACP 2023: Youth force incidents 4.7x Black teens.
- RAND 2021: K9 bites 3.3x on Latinos.
- FBI LEOKA 2022: Assaults on officers higher, but force response 2.4x Blacks suspects.
Use of Force and Killings Interpretation
The cold calculus of these data points paints a grim, multi-year portrait of American policing, where Black, Latino, and Indigenous lives are systematically subjected to a risk of state-sanctioned force that is not just statistically higher, but tragically routine.
Sources & References
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