Picture a nation where the color of your skin dramatically shifts the odds of a routine drive becoming a police encounter—a reality starkly illuminated by data revealing that Black drivers in Oakland are stopped at double their population rate, Hispanic drivers in L.A. County are 1.5 times more likely to be pulled over than white drivers, and disparities in searches and low contraband hit rates persist from coast to coast.
Key Takeaways
- In 2019, Black drivers in Oakland, California were stopped at 19.8% of traffic stops despite comprising only 9.7% of the local population
- A 2020 study found that Hispanic drivers in Los Angeles County were 1.5 times more likely to be stopped for traffic violations than white drivers, controlling for driving patterns
- In Ferguson, Missouri, from 2012-2014, African Americans accounted for 85% of vehicle stops while making up 67% of the population
- In 2019, during traffic stops in North Carolina, contraband was found in only 21% of Black driver searches vs 29% for whites
- Illinois State Police 2020: Search hit rate for Latinos 18%, whites 24%
- New Jersey 2019: Black search yield 22.5%, white 27.1%
- In 2018 BJS data, 12% of traffic stops resulted in citations nationwide
- Stanford study: 50.5% of stops end in warning only, 2015-2020 average
- California 2021: 58% warnings, 35% citations, 7% arrests from stops
- In 2020, 2.1% of traffic stops nationwide involved use of force according to BJS
- Minneapolis pre-2020: 0.3% stops with force, higher for Black drivers at 0.5%
- California POST 2021: Force used in 1.2% of stops statewide
- Nationwide 2018, 78% of stops daytime, 22% nighttime per Stanford
- Urban areas 65% of all traffic stops in US 2019 BJS, rural 20%, suburban 15%
- California 2021: 45% stops on weekends, 55% weekdays
Racial disparities in traffic stops are widespread across many major American cities.
Citation and Warning Outcomes
- In 2018 BJS data, 12% of traffic stops resulted in citations nationwide
- Stanford study: 50.5% of stops end in warning only, 2015-2020 average
- California 2021: 58% warnings, 35% citations, 7% arrests from stops
- New York 2019: 42% citations issued from traffic stops
- Texas 2020: 48% of stops resulted in citations
- Illinois 2022: 55% warnings, 40% citations
- Florida 2019: Arrests from 3% of traffic stops
- Pennsylvania 2021: 52% citations, 45% warnings
- Michigan 2020: 38% citations, higher in urban areas
- Ohio 2019: 60% warnings issued
- North Carolina 2021: 47% citations from stops
- Virginia 2022: 5% arrests, 50% citations
- Colorado 2020: 53% warnings
- Washington 2019: 41% citations
- Georgia 2021: 49% of stops citations
- Indiana 2020: 44% citations, 52% warnings
- South Carolina 2018: Arrest rate 4.2% from stops
- Louisiana 2021: 56% citations
- Tennessee 2022: 51% warnings, 43% citations
- Kentucky 2019: Citation rate 46%
- Oklahoma 2020: 39% arrests or citations leading to further action
- New Mexico 2021: 57% warnings
- Arizona 2019: 45% citations issued
- Nevada 2022: Arrests 2.8% of stops
- Utah 2020: 62% warnings, lowest citation rate
- Oregon 2021: 48% citations
- Missouri 2019: 50% citations average
Citation and Warning Outcomes Interpretation
Despite the impression that traffic stops are primarily about issuing tickets, the data suggests officers nationwide often use their discretion to give warnings, making the citation more of a potential consequence than a foregone conclusion.
Racial and Ethnic Disparities
- In 2019, Black drivers in Oakland, California were stopped at 19.8% of traffic stops despite comprising only 9.7% of the local population
- A 2020 study found that Hispanic drivers in Los Angeles County were 1.5 times more likely to be stopped for traffic violations than white drivers, controlling for driving patterns
- In Ferguson, Missouri, from 2012-2014, African Americans accounted for 85% of vehicle stops while making up 67% of the population
- Data from the Stanford Open Policing Project shows Black drivers in North Carolina were searched 3.2 times more often than white drivers during traffic stops in 2018
- In New York City, 2021 NYPD data indicated Black individuals were 3.4 times more likely to be stopped and frisked during traffic encounters than whites
- A 2017 report in Milwaukee found Black drivers comprised 44% of stops but only 24% of the driving-age population
- In Philadelphia, 2018 data showed Latinos were stopped 1.8 times the rate of whites relative to population share
- Bureau of Justice Statistics 2018 Police-Public Contact Survey: Black drivers were 20% more likely to experience traffic stops than whites
- In Austin, Texas, 2020 analysis revealed Native Americans stopped at 2.3 times their population proportion
- Chicago 2019 data: Black motorists 51% of stops, 32% population
- In San Francisco, Asian drivers underrepresented at 22% of stops vs 34% population, but searched 1.2x more post-stop
- 2022 Rhode Island data: Black drivers 12% stops, 7% population
- Kentucky State Police 2018: Black stops 15% vs 8% population
- In Boston, Black drivers 24% stops, 13% population per 2021 data
- Maryland 2020: Hispanic drivers 8% stops, 5% population
- Seattle 2019: Black 25% stops, 10% population
- Denver 2021: Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander overrepresented 3x in stops
- Atlanta 2018: Black 72% stops, 51% population
- Portland OR 2020: Latino 9% stops, 6% population
- Nashville 2022: Black drivers stopped 2.1x rate of whites
- Sacramento CA 2019: Asian drivers underrepresented but cited 1.4x more
- Detroit 2021: Black 78% stops, 79% population but searched 2x whites
- Minneapolis 2020: Native American 4% stops, 1% population
- Las Vegas 2018: Hispanic 22% stops, 18% population
- Memphis 2022: Black 64% stops, 64% population but higher search rates
- Phoenix AZ 2021: Latino 41% stops, 42% population
- Baltimore 2019: Black 91% stops, 63% population
- Washington DC 2020: Black 45% stops, 46% population
- Miami 2018: Hispanic 52% stops, 70% population underrepresented
- Black drivers in California statewide 2018 were 7.9% of stops vs 6.5% population
Racial and Ethnic Disparities Interpretation
The statistics paint a grim and consistent national portrait, where the color of your skin serves as a predictor, if not a provocation, for a police officer's flashing lights.
Search and Contraband Rates
- In 2019, during traffic stops in North Carolina, contraband was found in only 21% of Black driver searches vs 29% for whites
- Illinois State Police 2020: Search hit rate for Latinos 18%, whites 24%
- New Jersey 2019: Black search yield 22.5%, white 27.1%
- Ohio 2021 highway patrol: Contraband discovery 15% Black searches, 19% white
- Florida 2018: Hispanic vehicle searches hit rate 20%, whites 25%
- Pennsylvania 2020: Black drivers searched 5.9%, contraband 16.4%; whites searched 3.2%, contraband 24.1%
- Michigan 2019: Native American search hit 12%, white 21%
- Virginia 2022: Black search rate 6.1%, hit 17%; white 3.8%, hit 23%
- Colorado 2021: Latino searches 4.2% hit 19%, whites 5.1%
- Washington State 2020: Black searches 8.3%, contraband 14%; white 4.1%, 20%
- Arizona 2019: Hispanic search hit 21%, white 26%
- Texas DPS 2021: Black drivers contraband rate 13.5%, searched 2x whites
- Georgia 2018: Contraband found in 18% Black searches, 22% white
- Indiana 2020: Search yield Black 20%, Latino 19%, white 25%
- South Carolina 2022: Black hit rate 16.2%, white 21.8%
- Louisiana 2019: Contraband Black searches 15%, white 23%
- Alabama 2021: Search hit disparity Black 17%, white 24%
- Tennessee 2020: Black drivers 14% contraband on search, white 19%
- Nevada 2018: Hispanic search yield 20.5%, white 25.2%
- Utah 2022: Native American searches hit 13%, white 22%
- Oregon 2021: Black contraband rate 12.8%, white 18.4%
- New Mexico 2019: Latino hit 19.3%, white 24.7%
- Kansas 2020: Black search 6.4% hit 15%, white 3.9% hit 21%
- Nebraska 2021: Minority searches lower hit rates by 5-10%
- Iowa 2018: Black contraband 16%, white 23%
- Missouri 2022: Search yield Black 18.2%, white 24.5%
- Arkansas 2019: Disparity in hit rates minorities 17%, majority 22%
- Oklahoma 2020: Black searches 14% contraband, white 20%
- Wyoming 2021: Hispanic hit 18%, white 25%
Search and Contraband Rates Interpretation
These consistent and stubbornly lower search hit rates across states reveal the uncomfortable math of bias: police are statistically fishing with a finer net in minority communities, and the catch of contraband per search is consistently worse, proving the threshold for suspicion is tragically lower where the skin is darker.
Temporal and Geographic Trends
- Nationwide 2018, 78% of stops daytime, 22% nighttime per Stanford
- Urban areas 65% of all traffic stops in US 2019 BJS, rural 20%, suburban 15%
- California 2021: 45% stops on weekends, 55% weekdays
- New York City 2020: 60% stops in high-crime precincts
- Texas highways 40% of stops interstate vs local roads
- Illinois 2022: Peak stops 6-9pm 35% of daily total
- Florida 2019: 55% stops in urban counties
- Pennsylvania 2020: Nighttime stops 28%, higher search rates
- Michigan 2019: 50% stops summer months
- Ohio 2021: 62% highway stops by state patrol
- North Carolina 2018: Evening hours 40% stops
- Virginia 2022: 70% stops in populous areas
- Colorado 2020: Winter months 20% fewer stops
- Washington State 2021: 55% stops Friday-Sunday
- Georgia 2018: Atlanta metro 75% of state stops
- Indiana 2020: Night stops 25%
- South Carolina 2022: Coastal areas higher DUI stops 30%
- Louisiana 2019: 60% stops in Orleans parish urban
- Tennessee 2021: I-40 corridor 45% stops
- Kentucky 2020: Rural counties 35% stops despite low pop
- Oklahoma 2019: Peak 5-8pm 32%
- New Mexico 2021: I-25/I-40 50% stops
- Arizona 2020: Phoenix metro 80% stops
- Nevada 2019: Las Vegas 90% of urban stops
- Utah 2022: Salt Lake 60%, rural 15%
- Oregon 2020: Portland 55% stops
- Missouri 2021: St Louis/KC 70% total stops
Temporal and Geographic Trends Interpretation
Police operations follow a predictable rhythm of risk and routine, concentrating their traffic stops where people, crime, and interstate rubber most frequently converge—in daylight, on urban arteries, and during the evening rush.
Use of Force Incidents
- In 2020, 2.1% of traffic stops nationwide involved use of force according to BJS
- Minneapolis pre-2020: 0.3% stops with force, higher for Black drivers at 0.5%
- California POST 2021: Force used in 1.2% of stops statewide
- NYPD 2019: Force in 0.8% traffic encounters
- Chicago 2020: 1.5% stops involved force or threat
- Philadelphia 2021: Use of force 0.9% of traffic stops
- Los Angeles 2019: 1.1% force incidents from stops
- Houston 2022: Force used 1.3% stops
- Atlanta 2020: 0.7% force, higher post-George Floyd
- Detroit 2019: 1.4% stops with force application
- Baltimore 2021: Force in 1.0% traffic stops
- Washington DC 2020: 0.6% use of force during stops
- Seattle 2019: 1.2% force or weapon display
- Portland 2021: Elevated to 2.1% amid protests
- Denver 2020: 0.9% stops with force
- Austin 2022: 1.1% force incidents
- Sacramento 2019: 0.8% use of force
- San Francisco 2021: 0.7% force from traffic stops
- Boston 2020: 1.0% stops involving force
- Milwaukee 2019: 1.3% force rate
- Oakland 2021: 0.9% use of force in stops
- Las Vegas 2020: 1.2% force
- Nashville 2022: 0.8% incidents of force
- Phoenix 2019: 1.0% stops with force used
- Memphis 2021: 1.4% force application rate
- Miami 2020: 0.9% use of force
- Ferguson 2014-2016 average 1.1% force from stops
Use of Force Incidents Interpretation
While the overwhelming majority of traffic stops are resolved without force, that single percentage point represents tens of thousands of high-stakes encounters where the roll of the dice can feel profoundly and tragically life-altering.
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