
GITNUXSOFTWARE REVIEW
General KnowledgeTop 9 Best Old Mac OS Software of 2026
Compare old mac os software options with notes on emulation tools and archives, helping users shortlist what fits for legacy Mac setups.
How we ranked these tools
Vendors set the topic, but our editors set the inclusion criteria and the evaluation framework before research starts.
Agents extract product evidence with provenance, then collect written reviews and transcribe video reviews and podcasts.
Framework: Features 40% · Ease 30% · Value 30%
Gitnux may earn a commission through links on this page — this does not influence rankings. Editorial policy
QEMU is the best choice for teams doing repeatable legacy Mac OS testing in isolated setups because its hardware emulation across multiple CPU and machine types helps compatibility work go beyond x86 guest limits, whereas SheepShaver is better for classic PowerPC Mac app execution thanks to its disk-image boot with writable HFS volumes.
Editor’s top 3 picks
Three quick recommendations before you dive into the full comparison below — each one leads on a different dimension.
QEMU
Hardware emulation across multiple CPU and machine types enables compatibility work on legacy Mac OS images beyond x86 guest boundaries.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable legacy Mac OS testing in isolated environments.
Basilisk II
Editor pickBooting classic system images into a historically consistent emulated Mac environment for software compatibility checks.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable legacy Mac app execution for testing and short migration validation.
Internet Archive Software Library
Editor pickCollection-based packaging with stable object retrieval for cached legacy Mac installers and app archives.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable sourcing for legacy Mac software in isolated lab networks.
Comparison Table
QEMU
vertical specialistGeneric open-source machine emulator and virtualizer supporting m68k and PowerPC Mac OS targets.
Hardware emulation across multiple CPU and machine types enables compatibility work on legacy Mac OS images beyond x86 guest boundaries.
QEMU runs virtual machines through hardware emulation and CPU virtualization on x86 and non-x86 targets. It supports disk images and multiple guest architectures, which makes it useful for preserving legacy Mac OS environments and testing boot media behavior.
QEMU also integrates with automation via its command line controls and monitor interfaces, which helps reproducible lab setups for teams that manage old Mac OS software workflows. QEMU’s storage and device model are driven by explicit configuration flags, which keeps the behavior transparent for compatibility testing.
- +Strong architecture coverage for emulating non-x86 and legacy targets
- +Fine-grained device configuration supports reproducible compatibility tests
- +Monitor and command-line control support scripted test runs
- +Broad disk image support fits existing disk image workflows
- –Manual configuration is heavy compared with managed Mac-centric tooling
- –Guest firmware and boot device setup often requires iterative troubleshooting
- –Performance can drop when emulating hardware without acceleration
- –No built-in administration layer for fleet provisioning and reporting
DevOps and CI teams
Test old mac os software installers
Repeatable test environment resets
Software developers and test engineers
Validate old mac os software CPU behavior
Architecture coverage without hardware
Show 2 more scenarios
Digital preservation teams
Restore old mac os software via virtual media
Repeatable access to legacy setups
Boot older systems using configurable legacy devices and disk images that contain the needed system components.
Firmware and embedded engineers
Verify boot paths for legacy mac software
Earlier detection of boot issues
Use configurable virtual boards and peripherals to detect boot and hardware interaction problems before hardware exists.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable legacy Mac OS testing in isolated environments.
Basilisk II
vertical specialistOpen-source 68k Macintosh emulator that runs classic Mac OS software on modern hardware.
Booting classic system images into a historically consistent emulated Mac environment for software compatibility checks.
Basilisk II is a Classic Mac OS emulation solution that targets older software workflows on modern machines. It supports PowerPC and 68k-style environments through the Basilisk II emulator core and related disk and ROM boot paths.
Classic system image handling matters here because the emulator boots from disk images that include the System Folder and application bundles. Basilisk II fits teams that need legacy compatibility testing and time-boxed execution of older Mac applications without rebuilding environments.
- +Accurate classic Mac boot flows using disk images and ROM boot parameters
- +Supports commonly used legacy Mac CPU targets via emulator configuration
- +Good fit for running older installers packaged as DMG, disk images, or archives
- +Predictable behavior for compatibility checks across legacy apps
- –Setup requires careful emulator configuration and ROM or disk image preparation
- –Limited automation surface compared with managed Mac deployment tools
- –No native fleet governance features like RBAC or audit logs
- –Performance tuning is often needed for graphics-heavy or timing-sensitive apps
Classic Mac ISV testers
Run old mac os software in PowerPC
Legacy compatibility checks
QA teams on time-boxed testing
Execute old mac os software builds quickly
Faster legacy regression cycles
Show 1 more scenario
Developers validating 68k compatibility
Test old mac os software across CPU modes
Behavior differences identified
Use Basilisk II’s 68k-style support to compare old mac os software behavior under different classic execution models.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable legacy Mac app execution for testing and short migration validation.
Internet Archive Software Library
vertical specialistPublic digital archive containing emulated and downloadable legacy computer software.
Collection-based packaging with stable object retrieval for cached legacy Mac installers and app archives.
Internet Archive Software Library is a catalog workflow for software preservation that pairs downloadable files with collection pages and descriptive metadata. Teams can use it to source specific builds, then verify behavior in controlled Classic Environment setups or emulators without rebuilding procurement pipelines. The library favors discoverable file retrieval rather than a deployment-ready distribution format for managed Macs, so operational steps still land in the receiving environment.
A key tradeoff is that governance controls like RBAC, audit logs, and environment-scoped publishing are not built into the library layer, so access policy must be handled in the consuming workflow. It fits teams preparing a repeatable cache of legacy Mac installers and app archives for labs that run Classic Mac OS or Mac OS X legacy builds in isolated networks.
- +Stable object-based retrieval for archived software files
- +Collection pages provide searchable context for legacy releases
- +Scripting-friendly access patterns for bulk local caching
- +Broad coverage of classic-era Mac software artifacts
- –No RBAC or audit-log controls for institutional governance
- –Content quality varies by collection and requires validation
Mac lab operators
Build an offline installer cache
Faster reinstall cycles
Software preservation teams
Source multiple historical builds
Traceable software history
Show 2 more scenarios
IT automation teams
Seed Jamf distribution payloads
Repeatable provisioning workflows
Download archived binaries and convert them into managed installer artifacts for rollout.
Security validation groups
Validate legacy software integrity
Lower validation friction
Retrieve known installer artifacts for sandbox testing and compatibility checks in controlled setups.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable sourcing for legacy Mac software in isolated lab networks.
SheepShaver
API-firstEmulator for running PowerPC Macintosh operating systems on other platforms.
Disk image based boot with HFS writable volumes enables full Classic OS install and app usage within the emulator.
SheepShaver boots an emulated classic environment from a disk image and then exposes an HFS writable area for installing applications and saving documents. It supports the common “System Folder plus application” workflow used by Classic Mac OS releases and can map host storage so users can shuttle files in and out for emulator sessions. It does not provide the administration patterns familiar from modern Mac management stacks, since there is no documented provisioning interface or API surface for managing instances. Teams typically treat it as a per-machine emulator install rather than a centrally managed runtime.
- +Boots Classic Mac workflows from disk images and HFS volumes
- +Host file mapping supports practical app and document transfer
- +Configurable emulated hardware settings for legacy app expectations
- +Good fit for preserving targeted legacy titles and utilities
- –Compatibility can hinge on emulator timing and guest expectations
- –No centralized provisioning, automation, or management API
- –Requires careful setup of disks and shared folders each session
- –Modern storage and filesystem edge cases can surface in legacy apps
Mac support technicians
Run legacy tools for maintenance data
Fewer forced rebuilds
Creative operations teams
Recover assets from legacy authoring apps
Restored export outputs
Show 2 more scenarios
Software preservation engineers
Keep targeted Mac binaries usable
Longevity for legacy builds
Maintains runnable artifacts by pairing emulator configuration with disk images and app installs.
IT admins in regulated orgs
Short term legacy access without OS change
Reduced migration disruption
Provides a local runtime for classic dependencies while avoiding changes to production systems.
Best for: Fits when teams need classic Mac app execution on modern systems without modern OS migration.
Macintosh Repository
vertical specialistCatalog of Macintosh software, operating systems, games, and documentation.
Release-focused title pages that tie legacy software to the exact downloadable disk images and archives for that build.
Macintosh Repository organizes software into individual title pages that typically point to the exact download artifacts for that release, including disk image and archive deliveries. That structure supports repeatable intake in compatibility labs that need deterministic software versions for smoke tests. The site also keeps historical context readable enough to map old release behavior to specific build artifacts.
- +Title pages connect releases to specific downloadable artifacts
- +Curated long-tail classics reduce time spent chasing missing binaries
- +Archive-format variety supports different legacy installation workflows
- +Readable historical notes help map behavior to known builds
- –No automated packaging or rollout tooling for Mac fleet deployment
- –Some legacy archives require manual extraction before testing
Mac support engineers
Restore missing software for legacy users
Faster restoration with fewer mismatched builds
Compatibility lab teams
Build reproducible regression test sets
Consistent test coverage across machines
Show 1 more scenario
IT administrators
Curate a legacy software catalog
Reduced software version drift
Administrators use release pages as a source of truth for which application builds to ingest into internal distribution packages.
Best for: Fits when teams need consistent legacy application artifacts for lab validation, not automated endpoint rollout.
DOSBox
vertical specialistOpen-source x86 emulator that can run early Mac OS under emulation via patched builds.
Per-application emulation settings let multiple DOS programs keep separate disk mounts and runtime behavior.
DOSBox is a DOS emulator for running classic MS-DOS applications on modern systems and on macOS setups that need legacy software. It focuses on direct DOS program execution, including disk image mounting, keyboard and display configuration, and per-game configuration files.
- +Mounts DOS disk images and runs installers without full OS changes
- +Per-title configuration keeps different DOS apps isolated
- +Configurable graphics and input settings support older game and utility behavior
- +Good compatibility for software that expects a real-mode DOS environment
- –No fleet management or admin controls for Mac device governance
- –Limited automation and no documented API for profile provisioning
- –Compatibility depends on the original DOS app and its hardware assumptions
- –Requires manual troubleshooting when video or sound drivers do not match
Developers and testers
Check old mac os software DOS compatibility
Iterative compatibility checks
Users maintaining DOS workflows
Reproduce old mac os software drive layouts
More repeatable launches
Show 2 more scenarios
Musicians and archivists
Use DOS-era tools for legacy workflows
Access to older music tools
Run DOS-based composition or playback applications that support old mac os software related archival tasks.
Users restoring vintage installs
Launch emulated installers from images
Repeatable installer execution
Mount DOS-era media to recreate drive layouts and run installers as expected by older applications.
Best for: Fits when small Mac groups need repeatable single-app DOS execution without JAMF-style controls.
Mac OS 9 Lives
vertical specialistCommunity resource for classic Mac operating systems, software, and hardware.
Curated, ready-to-boot Classic Environment disk images designed to minimize manual legacy component assembly.
Mac OS 9 Lives targets teams and individuals maintaining legacy Mac software environments by delivering packaged system media for classic setups.
- +Provides curated Classic Environment media instead of ad hoc component collection
- +Common deployment path is disk-image style installs for legacy Macs and emulators
- +Packages tend to reduce extension conflicts versus piecing together archives
- +Includes legacy runtime components that match older application expectations
- –No admin controls, RBAC, or audit logging for fleet-style governance
- –Automation API surface is not present for provisioning workflows
- –Hardware support still depends on Open Firmware behavior and CPU generation
- –Modern compatibility validation is limited for cross-emulator or cross-VM setups
Legacy Mac software maintainers
Install old mac os software from packaged media
Less time sourcing media
Independent developers
Set up old mac os software quickly
Quicker environment setup
Show 1 more scenario
Archivists running preservation workflows
Maintain repeatable classic system setups
Consistent classic setup behavior
Use provided system media to keep old mac os software environments consistent while governance stays external.
Best for: Fits when collecting or standardizing Classic Environment setups for a small set of vintage Macs.
Mini vMac
API-firstModular emulator project for early Macintosh computers and system software.
Tunable emulation speed and behavior aimed at making timing-sensitive Classic-era software run from disk images.
Mini vMac is a lightweight Classic Mac OS emulator built for running legacy Mac software on modern machines. It focuses on PowerPC-era and 68k-era compatibility through a purpose-built emulation layer for older system ROMs and disk images.
- +Fast startup for Classic-era disk image workflows and app testing
- +Emulation tuning options for timing-sensitive older software
- +Good fit for local preservation runs without heavy virtualization overhead
- +Predictable file handling when using Mac disk images consistently
- –No native device provisioning workflow for managed Mac fleets
- –Compatibility varies by ROM and system components used by the target software
- –Limited observability since there are no built-in remote logs or audit trails
- –Not designed for multi-user concurrency or role-based administration
Preservation engineers
Run old mac os software from disk images
Local preservation testing
Application testers
Validate System Folder-dependent apps
System-dependent issues found
Show 1 more scenario
Retro workstation users
Execute 68k-era old mac os software
Classic app execution verified
Use the 68k-focused emulation layer to start and verify old mac os software that targets classic execution models.
Best for: Fits when a team needs repeatable local Classic Mac OS runs for testing and preservation, not fleet governance.
Macintosh Garden
vertical specialistArchive of classic Macintosh applications, games, utilities, and system software.
Release-level preservation of legacy packaging and accompanying documentation for classic Mac software distribution artifacts.
Macintosh Garden hosts curated collections of classic Mac OS software artifacts in formats like disk images and application bundles, with original media and documentation preserved alongside. The site organizes releases by machine compatibility and software category so teams can locate specific installers, utilities, and system-era components for archival or validation workflows.
- +Curated archives for classic Mac OS apps, installers, and utilities
- +Release pages group compatibility-relevant information in one place
- +Common legacy distribution formats like disk images and bundles are hosted
- +Documentation and media provenance are preserved with many releases
- –No API or automation surface for Jamf-style provisioning workflows
- –Consistency of metadata varies across older or less documented uploads
- –File integrity and compatibility require manual verification per release
- –Search and filters can feel limited for large-scale enterprise curation
Software migration teams
Find installers for old mac os software regression tests
Faster artifact retrieval
Archival curators
Preserve old mac os software distribution media
Better archival documentation coverage
Show 1 more scenario
QA teams reproducing legacy behavior
Recreate packaging and distribution for testing
More accurate legacy regression runs
Use the curated reference set and packaging formats to reproduce how older software was distributed and tested.
Best for: Fits when teams need a reliable source of legacy Mac OS installers for manual testing and archival preservation.
Conclusion
After evaluating 9 old mac os software, QEMU stands out as our overall top pick — it scored highest across our combined criteria of features, ease of use, and value, which is why it sits at #1 in the rankings above.
Use the comparison table and detailed reviews above to validate the fit against your own requirements before committing to a tool.
How to Choose the Right Old Mac Os Software
Old mac OS software work usually depends on two paths: collecting archived installer artifacts and running them in emulated Classic-era environments. This guide covers Internet Archive Software Library, Macintosh Repository, and Classic-focused emulators like SheepShaver and Basilisk II, plus supporting options such as QEMU and MacEMU.
The tools here differ in how they package legacy software releases for repeatable retrieval and how they handle execution from disk images on modern hardware. Some options such as Internet Archive Software Library focus on collection-based storage and stable object retrieval for cached legacy Mac installers and app archives. Other options such as SheepShaver focus on booting Classic workflows from HFS writable volumes with host file mapping.
Old Mac OS Software for preservation and repeatable Classic-era execution
Old mac OS software includes Classic Mac OS applications and utilities shipped as legacy disk images, installer packages, or archived application bundles that often need exact build matching for testing. Many teams treat the System Folder contents, emulator ROM expectations, and archive integrity as the practical compatibility surface.
Internet Archive Software Library fits when repeatable sourcing matters because it organizes legacy software as collection-based packaging with stable object retrieval for cached installers and archives. Macintosh Repository fits when release-to-artifact traceability matters because its release pages tie a legacy build to the exact downloadable disk images and archives needed for lab validation. For execution on modern systems, SheepShaver and Basilisk II focus on booting Classic system images from disk images into writable HFS volumes for app and document transfer testing.
What matters in Old Mac OS Software sourcing and Classic execution
Old mac OS software handling hinges on repeatable access to exact installer artifacts and reliable execution from disk images on modern hosts. Archive-focused tools win when teams need stable retrieval of legacy binaries that match test expectations.
Classic-focused emulators win when teams need predictable boot behavior and writable storage for app and document transfer testing. Many tools in this roundup also lack centralized governance, so execution repeatability usually has to be built into the lab workflow rather than into admin controls.
Collection-based packaging with stable object retrieval
Internet Archive Software Library packages legacy releases into collections that support stable object retrieval for cached installer files and app archives. Macintosh Garden also provides curated release pages, but it does not add retrieval stability for cached objects as strongly.
Release-to-artifact traceability for disk images
Macintosh Repository ties each legacy title page to exact downloadable disk images and archives for that build. This makes it better suited to lab validation workflows than general preservation sources.
Booting Classic workflows from disk images with host file mapping
SheepShaver boots Classic-era workflows from disk images into writable HFS volumes and uses host file mapping for practical app and document transfer. Basilisk II focuses more on accurate emulated boot flows than on host file exchange.
Emulation across multiple machine targets for compatibility testing
QEMU supports hardware emulation across multiple CPU and machine types, which helps test legacy Mac OS images beyond x86-only expectations. SheepShaver and Basilisk II focus more narrowly on Classic execution shapes.
Curated ready-to-boot Classic Environment media
Mac OS 9 Lives provides curated disk images designed to minimize manual assembly of Classic Environment components. It is geared toward standardized setups for a small set of vintage Macs.
Local image-based execution that preserves legacy file fork behavior
MacEMU focuses on local emulation workflow that boots legacy Mac OS from disk images while keeping Classic file fork behavior intact. It is aligned with execution testing rather than fleet-style provisioning.
Release-level preservation of installers and accompanying documentation
Macintosh Garden groups classic Mac software installers and utilities with compatibility-relevant context in release pages. It emphasizes manual testing and archival preservation instead of automated packaging.
How to choose Old Mac OS Software tools for your workflow
Selection depends on whether the work is primarily artifact sourcing or primarily execution inside a Classic-era environment. Teams that run repeatable validation cycles usually need both an artifact source with build traceability and an execution method that matches expected storage and timing behavior.
The strongest division in this list is between archive tooling that supports repeatable retrieval and emulators that support booting legacy system images. A second split is whether the emulator is tuned for full Classic app workflows with writable volumes or for compatibility checks with tightly controlled boot behavior.
Start with the artifact traceability requirement
If the priority is stable retrieval for cached legacy installers and app archives, Internet Archive Software Library is the primary match because collections support consistent object retrieval. If the priority is tying each build to the exact downloadable disk images needed for validation, Macintosh Repository is the more direct fit.
Decide whether Classic execution must be writable and transfer-friendly
Choose SheepShaver when testing requires booting Classic workflows into writable HFS volumes plus practical host file mapping for app and document transfer. Choose Basilisk II when the main goal is historically consistent emulated Mac boot flows for software compatibility checks.
Match the emulator to your expected compatibility surface
Choose QEMU when the compatibility surface spans multiple CPU and machine types and device configuration must be reproducible for isolated tests. Choose SheepShaver or Basilisk II when the workflow centers on classic Mac execution from disk images inside an emulated environment.
Pick curated media only when standardization beats maximum flexibility
Choose Mac OS 9 Lives when a curated, ready-to-boot Classic Environment disk image setup reduces manual component assembly across a small vintage lab. Avoid it when a wider range of custom Classic system assembly is required for a specific build.
Choose image-based local runs versus managed governance expectations
Choose MacEMU when the requirement centers on local image-based execution that preserves Classic file fork behavior without enterprise-grade admin controls. If governance requirements include centralized policy enforcement, this shortlist still lacks RBAC-like controls and audit log controls across the execution tools.
Use DOSBox or Mini vMac for narrow execution tasks rather than broad system testing
Choose DOSBox when multiple DOS programs must keep separate disk mounts and runtime behavior, while installers run without full OS changes. Choose Mini vMac when tuning for timing-sensitive Classic-era software matters more than device provisioning workflow for managed Mac fleets.
Who benefits from these Old Mac OS Software tools
These tools serve two common teams. One team sources legacy software artifacts for lab testing and preservation, and the other team runs legacy system images in emulation to validate behavior.
Many of the emulation and archive tools in this list do not provide centralized governance controls, so teams usually apply their own lab access process and validation checklist around the artifacts and runtime environment.
Security and compatibility validation teams running legacy app tests in isolated labs
SheepShaver and Basilisk II support booting Classic system images from disk images into controlled environments for repeatable checks with writable or controlled boot behavior.
Lab IT teams that must standardize legacy installer availability across offline networks
Internet Archive Software Library supports collection-based packaging with stable object retrieval for cached legacy Mac installers and app archives. Macintosh Repository adds stronger release-to-artifact traceability for exact disk images.
Preservation-focused teams cataloging legacy Mac installers and utilities
Macintosh Garden prioritizes release-level preservation of installers and accompanying documentation for manual testing and archival context. Internet Archive Software Library and Macintosh Repository add searchable packaging tied to legacy release artifacts.
Engineering groups testing compatibility across multiple CPU and machine types
QEMU provides hardware emulation coverage and fine-grained device configuration for reproducible compatibility tests on isolated machines.
Small Mac groups running narrow legacy workloads without enterprise management
DOSBox supports per-application configuration with separate disk mounts for consistent single-app DOS execution. Mini vMac focuses on tunable timing behavior for Classic-era app runs from disk images.
Common pitfalls when buying Old Mac OS Software tools
Tool selection often fails when teams expect centralized endpoint governance from archive or emulator tools. The tools in this list mostly focus on retrieval and execution, not on provisioning workflows with role-based access controls or audit logging.
Another frequent mistake is assuming that any disk image source automatically works with any emulator. Compatibility can hinge on disk preparation, emulator configuration, ROM expectations, and timing behavior, which requires matching the artifact and runtime environment closely.
Expecting RBAC or audit log controls for institutional governance
Internet Archive Software Library and SheepShaver do not provide RBAC or audit-log controls for fleet-style governance, so access control and logging must be handled outside the tool.
Buying an archive source without verifying build artifact completeness
Internet Archive Software Library content quality varies by collection, so teams should validate that downloaded installers include the exact files needed for the planned test workflow.
Treating emulator setup as plug-and-play for classic Mac system images
Basilisk II setup requires careful emulator configuration and ROM or disk image preparation, so unprepared images can block compatibility validation.
Assuming timing-sensitive software will work with default emulation settings
Mini vMac emphasizes tunable emulation speed and behavior for timing-sensitive Classic-era software, so default settings can miss expected runtime behavior.
Ignoring the need for writable volumes and transfer paths for practical app testing
SheepShaver includes writable HFS volumes plus host file mapping for app and document transfer, so teams that need round-trip workflows should not rely on emulators without that transfer friendliness.
How We Selected and Ranked These Tools
We evaluated each tool on feature coverage for legacy Mac sourcing or Classic execution, with features at 40% weight and ease of using the tool for repeatable work at 30% weight. Value also carried 30% weight based on whether the tool reduced manual chasing of missing artifacts or reduced iterative emulator setup work.
Internet Archive Software Library separated itself by combining collection-based packaging with stable object retrieval for cached legacy Mac installers and app archives, which reduces retrieval churn in offline lab networks. This combination gave it the highest overall score because it supports repeatable sourcing as a first step before emulation or manual testing.
Frequently Asked Questions About Old Mac Os Software
How can teams script repeatable ingestion of legacy Mac OS artifacts without building custom download logic?
When is emulator setup mainly about mounting disk images instead of managing agents or endpoints?
Which tool fits validating boot media behavior for legacy Mac OS images inside reproducible lab runs?
What breaks if a Classic app depends on resource fork expectations and the execution layer mishandles legacy file layouts?
Where does DOSBox fall short for Mac fleet workflows that need provisioning profiles and admin governance?
How do Classic-oriented emulators handle timing-sensitive software that expects consistent execution speed?
Which preservation source is better for packaging-oriented validation that compares installer formats across releases?
When does Mac OS 9 Lives become more useful than a single emulator for standardizing Classic Environment setups?
What tradeoff exists between booting a classic system inside an emulator versus using a local workstation emulator for short testing cycles?
Tools reviewed
Primary sources checked during evaluation.
Referenced in the comparison table and product reviews above.
Funding and competing interests
This study was co-funded by several of the vendors assessed in it. No single vendor funded it. Funders could propose the market studied.
They had no role in selecting vendors, setting or weighting criteria, analysing data or drawing conclusions, and they received the same factual-accuracy check as every other vendor assessed.
Market definition, inclusion rules and criteria weights were fixed by an editor before research began and did not change afterwards. Editorial process →
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