GITNUXSOFTWARE ADVICE
Science ResearchTop 9 Best Environmental Modeling Software of 2026
Rank the top 10 environmental modeling software tools for simulations, life cycle analysis, and CFD, with tradeoffs and fit notes for teams.
How we ranked these tools
Vendors set the topic, but our editors set the inclusion criteria and the evaluation framework before research starts.
Agents extract product evidence with provenance, then collect written reviews and transcribe video reviews and podcasts.
Framework: Features 40% · Ease 30% · Value 30%
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COMSOL Multiphysics is the best fit for teams that need tightly controlled, coupled fate-transport and meshing across environmental processes, whereas openLCA is the better choice when you focus on repeatable, automation-ready life cycle assessment with structured datasets.
Editor’s top 3 picks
Three quick recommendations before you dive into the full comparison below — each one leads on a different dimension.
COMSOL Multiphysics
Multiphysics coupling of transport and flow variables through shared solution fields across domains.
Best for: Fits when teams need coupled fate-transport physics with tight control over meshing and boundary conditions.
openLCA
Editor pickGraph-based product system modeling with explicit process exchanges and allocation logic for controlled scenario comparisons.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable life cycle assessment with structured datasets and automation.
OpenFOAM
Editor pickDictionary-driven case control paired with extensible solvers and libraries enables custom physics without rebuilding the entire workflow.
Best for: Fits when teams need code-level control over CFD physics and repeatable case automation.
Comparison Table
COMSOL Multiphysics
enterpriseMultiphysics simulation platform used for groundwater, heat transfer, chemical transport, and environmental process modeling.
Multiphysics coupling of transport and flow variables through shared solution fields across domains.
COMSOL Multiphysics is a strong fit for environmental problems where fate and transport must be coupled to variable fields like flow velocity, heat, and source terms in the same solve sequence. Environmental studies can be built from reusable physics interfaces, then connected through shared variables across domains and boundaries.
A key tradeoff is engineering time spent on mesh quality and solver strategy when models span complex geometry or strongly coupled physics. It fits teams running site-specific groundwater flow with subsurface contaminant fate, then iterating on boundary conditions and sources across design scenarios.
- +Coupled multi-physics workflows tie transport to computed fields in one model
- +Finite element mesh control supports complex boundary conditions and terrain-following geometry
- +Parameter sweeps support calibration, sensitivity analysis, and scenario comparison
- +Extensible physics setup supports specialized environmental interfaces and custom equations
- –Large, coupled models require careful mesh and solver configuration
- –Advanced automation needs scripting and model management practices
Hydrogeology engineering teams
Groundwater flow plus contaminant plume modeling
More accurate plume dynamics
Environmental compliance analysts
Scenario testing for permit-related impacts
Repeatable regulatory-style studies
Show 2 more scenarios
Academic research groups
Custom contaminant transport equations
Higher model flexibility
Implements user-defined equations and couples them to computed velocities on structured workflows.
Modeling consultants
Site geometry to physics-ready setup
Faster model assembly
Uses geometry import and boundary mapping to translate site features into finite element domains.
Best for: Fits when teams need coupled fate-transport physics with tight control over meshing and boundary conditions.
openLCA
vertical specialistOpen-source life cycle assessment and sustainability modeling framework.
Graph-based product system modeling with explicit process exchanges and allocation logic for controlled scenario comparisons.
openLCA fits teams that need repeatable life cycle assessment runs and structured handling of product systems, not one-off calculator outputs. The software supports modeling foreground processes, linking them to background inventories, and running impact assessment across multiple scenarios. Its workflow visibility is strong for audit trails at the model level, since datasets, allocations, and impact methods are explicit objects in the workspace.
A tradeoff is that openLCA’s strongest value is in life cycle assessment modeling rather than coupled fate and transport or regulatory hydrodynamic simulation workflows. It is a good fit for packaging, materials, and supply chain assessments where versioning of datasets and consistent method selection matter for calibration and sensitivity studies.
- +Strong LCIA method and impact scoring integration with explicit model objects
- +Extensible architecture for custom calculations and dataset organization
- +Automation support for batch scenario runs and repeatable studies
- +Clear separation of foreground processes and background inventories
- –Less suitable for numerical fate and transport modeling workflows
- –Complex allocation setups can increase model build time
- –Results traceability depends on disciplined dataset management
- –Scenario automation requires more setup than GUI-only workflows
Sustainability analysts
Compare packaging material LCAs
Consistent scenario comparisons
Supply chain data teams
Standardize background inventory mapping
Reduced dataset drift
Show 2 more scenarios
R&D sustainability engineers
Sensitivity analysis on allocations
More defensible assumptions
Parameterize key assumptions and rerun impact results to quantify changes from allocation choices.
Research groups
Batch run multiple LCIA methods
Method-contrast reporting
Apply multiple impact methods to the same model inputs to compare indicator behavior.
Best for: Fits when teams need repeatable life cycle assessment with structured datasets and automation.
OpenFOAM
API-firstOpen source CFD platform used for atmospheric dispersion, water flow, heat transfer, and environmental transport simulations.
Dictionary-driven case control paired with extensible solvers and libraries enables custom physics without rebuilding the entire workflow.
OpenFOAM provides solver customization through a modular architecture where physics implementations are packaged as solvers and libraries. Geometry and grid inputs feed numerical kernels that iterate on governing equations with per-case control files that specify fields, boundary conditions, and time stepping. Environmental workflows often use it for atmospheric dispersion modeling and contaminant plume simulation where users need control over discretization choices and source term formulation.
A key tradeoff is that case setup requires engineering discipline, including mesh quality checks and careful dictionary configuration, not a guided point-and-click modeling flow. OpenFOAM fits teams that already maintain modeling code or plan to build or adapt solvers for specific boundary conditions, emissions, or coupling patterns. It is also a strong fit for studies that demand repeatable preprocessing and deterministic solver behavior across many scenarios.
- +Solver and boundary modeling extensibility through custom code and dictionaries
- +Finite volume discretization gives consistent control over numerical setup
- +Parallel execution supports higher-throughput scenario runs
- +Community add-ons expand environmental modeling workflows
- –Case configuration requires deep familiarity with dictionary structure
- –Mesh quality issues can dominate setup time and convergence
- –Native data pipelines for GIS and formats are limited without tooling
- –Coupled or regulatory workflows often need custom integration work
CFD-focused environmental modelers
Airflow and dispersion with custom sources
Higher fidelity plume predictions
Research engineering teams
Numerical method adaptation for transport
Method-specific sensitivity tests
Show 1 more scenario
Municipal water and wastewater analysts
Flow and contaminant transport in channels
Scenario comparisons across events
Uses finite volume formulation to solve coupled flow and species fields.
Best for: Fits when teams need code-level control over CFD physics and repeatable case automation.
GoldSim
enterpriseDynamic probabilistic simulation software used for environmental systems, remediation, and risk analysis.
Stochastic simulation with uncertainty propagation directly inside model execution, producing distribution outputs without separate post-processing.
GoldSim is an environmental modeling tool built around stochastic simulation for fate, transport, and system-level risk workflows. It combines deterministic process models with Monte Carlo execution to generate distributions for outputs like contaminant concentrations and dose.
- +Stochastic Monte Carlo execution generates output distributions for uncertainty reporting
- +Built-in uncertainty and sensitivity workflows reduce external scripting for scenario sweeps
- +Component-based model construction supports multi-physics style workflows
- +Deterministic and stochastic logic can be mixed within one run configuration
- –Model assembly can become complex for large coupled systems
- –External data exchange relies on file-based workflows for many GIS and NetCDF scenarios
- –Boundary-condition detail depends on the chosen GoldSim process libraries
- –Performance tuning is needed for high-throughput Monte Carlo runs
Best for: Fits when teams need coupled fate and transport scenario modeling with Monte Carlo uncertainty and sensitivity outputs.
InfoWorks ICM
enterpriseIntegrated catchment modeling software for stormwater, wastewater, river flooding, and network performance analysis.
Coupled 1D network hydraulics with 2D inundation surfaces using shared time-series boundaries.
InfoWorks ICM builds coupled 1D and 2D hydrodynamic models for urban drainage, with GIS-based network creation and time-varying boundary condition support. It supports contaminant fate and transport modeling inside water distribution and sewer networks, including advection, dispersion, and demand-driven flow fields.
- +Coupled 1D sewer networks with 2D surface inundation for urban flooding studies
- +Contaminant fate and transport workflows for sewer and water distribution scenarios
- +GIS-based network and boundary import supports repeatable model setup
- +Scenario management supports batch runs for calibration and what-if comparisons
- –Coupling 1D and 2D setups can require careful mesh and timestep tuning
- –API extensibility is narrower than general-purpose simulation engines for custom automation
- –Some regulatory reporting workflows rely on predefined data preparation steps
- –Model performance depends on discretization choices, which increases setup time
Best for: Fits when water utilities need coupled urban flooding plus contaminant transport within a repeatable GIS workflow.
AERMOD View
vertical specialistAir dispersion modeling software built around EPA regulatory models for industrial and environmental permitting work.
Project-driven case authoring that generates AERMOD-ready run files from a structured visual workflow.
AERMOD View from weblakes.com is a visual workflow tool for building and running air dispersion model cases with AERMOD. It focuses on editing inputs, managing project files, and generating AERMOD-ready run artifacts from a guided interface.
- +Guided input editing reduces errors when creating AERMOD case files
- +Project-based case management keeps run inputs and outputs organized
- +Terrain and meteorology inputs can be prepared without manual AERMOD file rewriting
- +Run packaging supports repeat runs with controlled configuration changes
- –Primarily centered on AERMOD workflows rather than broader dispersion engines
- –Automation and API surface are limited for fully custom pipelines
- –Advanced modeling options can still require detailed configuration knowledge
- –Spatial preprocessing coverage depends on what upstream GIS steps provide
Best for: Fits when teams need guided, repeatable AERMOD case setup and iteration without building custom input generation scripts.
AQUATOX
vertical specialistAquatic ecosystem modeling software for nutrients, pollutants, food webs, and ecological response analysis.
EPA-focused fate and transport process library that couples contaminant transformations with ecological effects inside one model.
AQUATOX from epa.gov distinguishes itself by focusing specifically on fate and transport for aquatic systems with contaminant and ecological impact processes rather than offering a general-purpose modeling workbench. The software supports building water column and sediment compartments, specifying reactions like decay, sorption, and volatilization, and tracking dissolved and particulate fractions through time.
- +Built-in contaminant transformation processes for aquatic water and sediment compartments
- +Compartments and fraction tracking support dissolved and particulate mass balance
- +Parameter calibration workflows connect model outputs to observed concentration time series
- +Scenario reruns support sensitivity sweeps across fate and reaction parameters
- –Narrow aquatic scope makes it less suitable for multi-physics air or groundwater modeling
- –Tuning fate parameters can require careful setup of boundary conditions and time steps
- –Interoperability with GIS workflows depends on external preprocessing
- –Complex ecological configurations can slow model development for small projects
Best for: Fits when waterbody studies need contaminant plume-like fate tracking and ecological impacts without swapping engines.
Envi-met
vertical specialistMicroclimate modeling software for urban environmental analysis covering heat, wind, vegetation, and air quality.
Coupled urban canopy and surface exchange modeling supports time-stepped microclimate runs for heat and ventilation at pedestrian height.
Envi-met focuses on microclimate modeling that couples urban atmosphere processes with surface interactions in a three-dimensional grid. It is built around urban canopy physics, including air temperature, humidity, wind flow, and radiation exchange, so it can resolve neighborhood-scale gradients that lumped steady models miss.
- +3D urban microclimate outputs support street-level heat and ventilation assessments
- +Radiation and exchange processes are modeled in a coupled urban surface context
- +Boundary condition setup supports scenario runs across different time windows
- +Consistent time-stepped outputs support before-after comparisons
- –Urban geometry preparation can be time-consuming for dense study areas
- –Interoperability with general water and groundwater model formats is limited
- –Calibration and validation workflows are not as turnkey as specialized air quality toolchains
- –High-resolution runs can require significant compute time for large domains
Best for: Fits when teams need neighborhood-scale microclimate scenarios with building-aware surface and radiation effects.
Visual MODFLOW Flex
vertical specialistGroundwater modeling software for flow, contaminant transport, and hydrogeologic conceptual model development.
Visual authoring maps groundwater model components into MODFLOW-ready input exports in an iterative scenario workflow.
Visual MODFLOW Flex generates groundwater flow and transport model inputs through a visual workflow tied to MODFLOW-compatible datasets. It focuses on building geometries, boundary conditions, and stress packages with a GUI-first authoring flow rather than a script-first model builder.
- +GUI-driven authoring for MODFLOW input components without hand-editing
- +Scenario iteration workflow supports repeatable calibration runs
- +GIS-based geometry and boundary assignment reduces manual setup time
- +Export-first model packaging keeps compatibility with MODFLOW ecosystems
- –Visual controls can obscure underlying parameter sensitivity settings
- –Automation depth is limited compared with script-driven MODFLOW toolchains
- –Coupled workflows beyond MODFLOW often require external file preparation
- –Advanced discretization customization may still depend on manual input formats
Best for: Fits when teams need GUI-based MODFLOW model setup and scenario iteration over heavy scripting.
Conclusion
After evaluating 9 environmental modeling software, COMSOL Multiphysics stands out as our overall top pick — it scored highest across our combined criteria of features, ease of use, and value, which is why it sits at #1 in the rankings above.
Use the comparison table and detailed reviews above to validate the fit against your own requirements before committing to a tool.
How to Choose the Right Environmental Modeling Software
Environmental modeling software covers tools that simulate groundwater flow, contaminant fate and transport, watershed and urban flooding hydraulics, and atmospheric dispersion through equations, meshes, and boundary-condition inputs. This buyer’s guide spans COMSOL Multiphysics, openLCA, OpenFOAM, GoldSim, InfoWorks ICM, AERMOD View, AQUATOX, Envi-met, and Visual MODFLOW Flex.
The selection framework emphasizes integration depth, automation and API surface, and governance controls where the workflows naturally support them, since water and air teams often need repeatable scenario execution and data exchange with GIS and time-series sources. The tool coverage also reflects the practical choice points between coupled multi-physics platforms like COMSOL Multiphysics and more specialized engines like AQUATOX and Envi-met.
Environmental Modeling Software for coupled water, air, and contaminant simulations
Environmental modeling software is used to build numerical models that discretize geometry into grids or meshes, define boundary conditions and time-varying inputs, and run simulations that produce spatial and time-series outputs. Teams typically use these tools for groundwater flow modeling, contaminant plume simulation, watershed hydrology, and atmospheric dispersion modeling, then validate results through calibration workflows.
COMSOL Multiphysics supports coupled transport and flow variables through shared solution fields across domains, which is a direct fit for fate-transport problems that need tight meshing and boundary-condition control. GoldSim supports stochastic Monte Carlo execution that generates output distributions inside the model run, which is a direct fit for uncertainty propagation and sensitivity reporting without separate batch post-processing.
Evaluation criteria for Environmental Modeling Software execution and integration
Environmental modeling projects succeed when the model build stage and the run stage stay consistent across geometry, discretization, and boundary conditions. The right tooling reduces translation errors between GIS inputs, time-series sources, and solver-ready definitions.
This guide prioritizes integration depth, automation and API surface, and admin and governance controls where those capabilities match environmental modeling workflows. The evaluation also distinguishes tools that couple physics in one solve from tools that orchestrate workflows around specialized engines.
Multiphysics coupling and shared solution fields
COMSOL Multiphysics couples transport and flow variables through shared solution fields across domains, which supports tightly constrained fate and transport formulations in one model setup. AQUATOX keeps contaminant transformation processes and aquatic ecological effects inside one fate and transport execution, which reduces engine swapping for waterbody studies.
Stochastic uncertainty propagation during model runs
GoldSim runs Monte Carlo directly inside the model execution and returns output distributions without separate external uncertainty pipelines. COMSOL Multiphysics also supports advanced coupled workflows where uncertainty and sensitivity analysis can be automated through its scripting and model management, but GoldSim is the clearer uncertainty-first fit.
Case configuration automation for repeatable CFD and dispersion runs
OpenFOAM uses dictionary-driven case control paired with extensible solvers and libraries, which supports repeatable case automation when physics changes remain within custom dictionaries and code. AERMOD View generates AERMOD-ready run files from project-based authoring, which helps standardize input edits across repeated AERMOD submissions.
Workflow-level coupling for urban water and contaminant scenarios
InfoWorks ICM couples 1D sewer hydraulics with 2D inundation surfaces using shared time-series boundaries, which supports urban flooding plus contaminant fate and transport in one coordinated workflow. Envi-met targets neighborhood-scale microclimate with building-aware surface and radiation exchange, which is a different coupling target than network hydraulics and requires separate geometry preparation.
Model build structure for process logic and controlled scenario comparisons
openLCA represents product systems as explicit process exchanges with allocation logic, which makes scenario comparisons more repeatable when datasets and method objects must stay auditable. This structure helps LC-focused teams keep assumptions explicit, while it is less suited to numerical fate and transport mesh discretization than COMSOL Multiphysics.
Scenario iteration workflow for groundwater model components
Visual MODFLOW Flex maps groundwater components into MODFLOW-ready inputs via GUI authoring and supports scenario iteration over calibration runs. COMSOL Multiphysics delivers deeper control over meshing and boundary conditions for coupled physics, while Visual MODFLOW Flex narrows focus toward MODFLOW-aligned input exports.
Decision steps for picking the right Environmental Modeling Software workflow
Environmental modeling software decisions hinge on whether the core work happens inside one solver model or across multiple specialized engines and file-based exchanges. The strongest fit emerges when the tool matches the team’s coupling target and the required repeatability for case execution.
The steps below separate workflows that need physics coupling in one run from workflows that prioritize guided run-file generation, stochastic execution, or structured scenario logic. Each branch below is about how the modeling work gets done, not about generic feature checklists.
Choose a coupling target that matches the solver model boundary
If transport and flow variables must share solution fields across domains in one solve, COMSOL Multiphysics fits coupled fate and transport needs with tight control over meshing and boundary conditions. If aquatic transformation and ecological effects must be executed inside one contamination model scope, AQUATOX fits waterbody studies without moving across multiple engines.
Decide whether uncertainty distributions must be produced during execution
If the deliverable requires Monte Carlo output distributions without external batch post-processing, GoldSim is built for stochastic simulation that propagates uncertainty inside model execution. If uncertainty workflows must live inside a broader multiphysics model with shared fields, COMSOL Multiphysics can automate coupled runs, but GoldSim remains the uncertainty-first choice.
Pick automation style for CFD and custom physics cases
If repeatability depends on code-level physics control and automated case generation, OpenFOAM uses extensible solvers and dictionary-driven case control. If repeatability depends on guided project-based edits that generate AERMOD-ready run files, AERMOD View supports structured visual case authoring rather than custom solver extensions.
Align GIS-driven coupling with the right network or microclimate domain
If urban flooding plus contaminant transport must use shared time-series boundaries between a 1D sewer network and a 2D inundation surface, InfoWorks ICM is the direct match for that coupling pattern. If the goal is building-aware pedestrian-height microclimate with coupled urban canopy and surface exchange, Envi-met should be selected despite limited interoperability with general water and groundwater model formats.
Use modeling structure that supports the team’s governance needs
If scenario governance relies on explicit process objects, allocation logic, and impact scoring method objects, openLCA’s graph-based product system modeling fits structured scenario comparisons. If governance depends on GUI-driven MODFLOW-aligned setup and scenario iteration, Visual MODFLOW Flex supports repeatable calibration runs without hand-editing core input components.
Who should use each Environmental Modeling Software type
Environmental modeling teams have different constraints on model construction, run automation, and auditability of assumptions. The tool selection should match the workflow where errors are most expensive, such as mesh configuration, run-file generation, or scenario logic assembly.
The segments below reflect where each tool’s distinguishing execution model reduces rework and standardizes outputs for water and air studies.
Teams coupling fate and transport variables with geometry-aware meshing control
COMSOL Multiphysics is designed for coupled transport and flow variables across domains using shared solution fields, which reduces mismatch between physics definitions and discretization choices.
Water utilities running repeatable urban flooding plus contaminant transport scenarios
InfoWorks ICM couples 1D sewer networks with 2D inundation surfaces through shared time-series boundaries, which supports coordinated urban water quality scenarios inside a repeatable GIS workflow.
Air quality teams that must produce AERMOD run files from structured edits
AERMOD View generates AERMOD-ready run files from project-driven case authoring, which keeps input edits organized and reduces manual input generation errors.
Modelers that must quantify uncertainty directly as output distributions
GoldSim executes stochastic Monte Carlo inside the model run and produces distribution outputs for uncertainty reporting without requiring a separate uncertainty pipeline.
Researchers requiring aquatic contaminant transformations plus ecological effects in one execution
AQUATOX includes built-in contaminant transformation processes across aquatic compartments, which supports plume-like fate tracking with ecological impacts without swapping to another engine.
Common pitfalls when buying Environmental Modeling Software
Environmental modeling failures often come from mismatched workflow assumptions. Teams can purchase a tool that fits one step of the pipeline but breaks at the integration step that dominates total effort, such as run automation or file-based exchange with GIS and NetCDF sources.
The pitfalls below focus on how these tools behave when workflows expand beyond the initial prototype.
Selecting a multipurpose environment without checking whether physics coupling happens inside one solve
COMSOL Multiphysics supports coupled transport and flow through shared solution fields, while AQUATOX keeps aquatic transformation and ecological effects inside its fate and transport execution. If the coupling boundary must match the solver boundary, the tool with in-solve coupling should be prioritized.
Assuming uncertainty workflows are interchangeable across tools
GoldSim generates Monte Carlo output distributions during execution, which avoids rebuilding a separate uncertainty pipeline. If a tool mainly supports deterministic runs or relies on external batch processing, scenario turnaround time increases for distribution-based reporting.
Underestimating case setup complexity for dictionary-based CFD and custom physics
OpenFOAM requires deep familiarity with dictionary structure and mesh quality, which can dominate setup time when geometry or discretization changes. Teams that need guided setup and run-file generation should evaluate AERMOD View for structured AERMOD case authoring instead of assuming CFD-grade extensibility fits the same workflow.
Overlooking interoperability limits between domain-specific engines and general water or groundwater formats
Envi-met can require significant urban geometry preparation for dense study areas and has limited interoperability with general water and groundwater model formats. Teams planning cross-engine coupling should map the required input formats and exchange paths before committing to Envi-met.
How We Selected and Ranked These Tools
We evaluated COMSOL Multiphysics, openLCA, OpenFOAM, GoldSim, InfoWorks ICM, AERMOD View, AQUATOX, Envi-met, and Visual MODFLOW Flex for integration depth, automation and API surface, and governance controls where the tools support controlled scenario execution. Features counted for 40 percent of the overall score, with ease and value each contributing 30 percent.
COMSOL Multiphysics led because its coupled multiphysics workflows tie transport to computed fields inside one model with fine-grained finite element mesh control and boundary-condition specification that directly supports coupled fate and transport modeling. The remaining tools ranked by how directly their standout execution model matched common water and air study workflows, such as GoldSim uncertainty distributions, InfoWorks ICM 1D-2D urban hydraulics coupling, and openLCA graph-based process logic for structured scenario comparisons.
Frequently Asked Questions About Environmental Modeling Software
How does COMSOL Multiphysics handle coupled fate and transport compared with AQUATOX for waterbody contamination studies?
Which tool is better for code-level customization of air or water flow physics when custom boundary conditions and numerical methods are required?
When do Visual MODFLOW Flex and COMSOL Multiphysics diverge for groundwater modeling workflows and scenario iteration?
What breaks if an air dispersion workflow needs fully guided AERMOD case authoring with repeatable project structure?
How does openLCA support automation and repeatability for scenario calculations compared with GoldSim?
What tradeoff appears when switching from GoldSim’s internal uncertainty propagation to COMSOL Multiphysics parameter sweeps for calibration?
How do InfoWorks ICM and Delft-style 2D inundation workflows differ when contaminant transport must run inside urban drainage hydraulics?
Which tool is designed for neighborhood-scale microclimate runs where pedestrian-level heat and ventilation gradients depend on surface exchange and canopy physics?
How do admin controls and auditability differ when multiple modelers need shared governance across runs in COMSOL Multiphysics versus OpenFOAM-based workflows?
When importing GIS terrain and geometry for modeling setup, how do Envi-met and Visual MODFLOW Flex differ in their expected data workflow?
Tools reviewed
Primary sources checked during evaluation.
Referenced in the comparison table and product reviews above.
Funding and competing interests
This study was co-funded by several of the vendors assessed in it. No single vendor funded it. Funders could propose the market studied.
They had no role in selecting vendors, setting or weighting criteria, analysing data or drawing conclusions, and they received the same factual-accuracy check as every other vendor assessed.
Market definition, inclusion rules and criteria weights were fixed by an editor before research began and did not change afterwards. Editorial process →
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