GITNUXREPORT 2026

Merchant Industry Statistics

The merchant services industry is experiencing strong global growth driven by rising digital and contactless payment adoption.

Sarah Mitchell

Sarah Mitchell

Senior Researcher specializing in consumer behavior and market trends.

First published: Feb 13, 2026

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Key Statistics

Statistic 1

68% of U.S. merchants adopted digital wallets by Q4 2023.

Statistic 2

Contactless payments accounted for 55% of all in-store merchant transactions in Europe 2023.

Statistic 3

42% of global merchants integrated BNPL options by mid-2023.

Statistic 4

Mobile POS adoption among U.S. retailers reached 62% in 2023.

Statistic 5

75% of UK merchants now accept Apple Pay, up from 45% in 2021.

Statistic 6

Tap-to-pay on iPhone adopted by 28% of U.S. small merchants in 2023.

Statistic 7

81% of e-commerce merchants use multiple payment gateways in 2023.

Statistic 8

QR code payments usage among Asian merchants hit 65% in 2023.

Statistic 9

53% of Latin American merchants shifted to omnichannel payments in 2023.

Statistic 10

U.S. grocery merchants: 92% accept EMV chip cards post-2023.

Statistic 11

37% of global merchants offer crypto payments in 2023.

Statistic 12

NFC adoption in merchant terminals: 78% worldwide by 2023.

Statistic 13

64% of SMBs in Canada use integrated POS systems in 2023.

Statistic 14

Voice commerce payment adoption: 19% among U.S. merchants 2023.

Statistic 15

71% of Australian merchants accept digital wallets per RBA 2023 survey.

Statistic 16

Biometric payment adoption: 12% of EU merchants in 2023.

Statistic 17

88% of large U.S. retailers use tokenization services 2023.

Statistic 18

P2P payment apps integrated by 45% of merchants globally 2023.

Statistic 19

Subscription billing tools adopted by 56% of SaaS merchants 2023.

Statistic 20

29% of merchants worldwide use AI for fraud detection 2023.

Statistic 21

Open banking APIs adopted by 34% of European merchants 2023.

Statistic 22

67% of Indian merchants use UPI for transactions in 2023.

Statistic 23

Self-checkout POS systems in 41% of U.S. supermarkets 2023.

Statistic 24

52% of Brazilian merchants accept Pix payments fully 2023.

Statistic 25

Headless commerce platforms used by 23% of online merchants 2023.

Statistic 26

76% of hospitality merchants use mobile ordering apps 2023.

Statistic 27

Virtual cards adoption: 31% among B2B merchants 2023.

Statistic 28

The global merchant services market size was valued at $45.2 billion in 2022 and is projected to grow to $78.9 billion by 2030 at a CAGR of 7.2%.

Statistic 29

U.S. merchant acquiring volume reached $8.9 trillion in 2022, up 12% from the previous year.

Statistic 30

The POS terminal market worldwide was estimated at $112.4 billion in 2023, expected to expand at 10.5% CAGR through 2030.

Statistic 31

Digital payments processing for merchants grew by 18.4% YoY to $6.2 trillion in 2023 globally.

Statistic 32

Merchant payment processing fees in North America averaged 2.9% of transaction volume in 2023.

Statistic 33

The contactless payment market for merchants hit $1.5 trillion in volume in 2023, with 45% market penetration.

Statistic 34

Global mPOS market revenue reached $25.6 billion in 2023, forecasted to $48.2 billion by 2028 at 13.5% CAGR.

Statistic 35

E-commerce payment gateway market valued at $18.7 billion in 2022, growing at 22.1% CAGR to 2030.

Statistic 36

U.S. small business merchant services adoption drove $1.2 trillion in card volume in 2023.

Statistic 37

BNPL merchant volume surged 41% to $24 billion globally in H1 2023.

Statistic 38

Merchant acquiring market in Asia-Pacific grew 15.2% to $12.4 billion in 2023.

Statistic 39

Global payment processing market expected to reach $200 billion by 2027 from $120 billion in 2022.

Statistic 40

U.S. debit card merchant volume increased 8.7% to $4.1 trillion in 2022.

Statistic 41

Credit card acceptance among merchants rose to 92% in Europe by end of 2023.

Statistic 42

Merchant services software market hit $7.8 billion in 2023, with 11.9% CAGR projected.

Statistic 43

Online merchant transaction volume globally: $5.8 trillion in 2023, up 14%.

Statistic 44

Latin America merchant acquiring grew 22% to $450 billion volume in 2023.

Statistic 45

NFC-enabled merchant terminals reached 15 million units worldwide in 2023.

Statistic 46

Merchant discount rate (MDR) averaged 1.8% globally in 2023 for Visa transactions.

Statistic 47

Payment orchestration platforms market for merchants: $1.2 billion in 2023, 25% CAGR.

Statistic 48

Global merchant POS software market valued at $12.5 billion in 2023.

Statistic 49

U.S. merchant credit card volume: $7.2 trillion in 2023, 9.5% growth.

Statistic 50

Fintech merchant services startups raised $4.5 billion in VC funding in 2023.

Statistic 51

Merchant tokenization services market: $2.8 billion in 2023, 16% CAGR to 2030.

Statistic 52

Europe merchant acquiring revenue: €45 billion in 2023.

Statistic 53

Global real-time payments for merchants processed $1.9 trillion in 2023.

Statistic 54

SMB merchant payment processing market share: 35% of total volume in 2023.

Statistic 55

Merchant services M&A deals totaled 150 transactions worth $18 billion in 2023.

Statistic 56

Cloud-based merchant platforms market: $9.1 billion in 2023.

Statistic 57

Projected global merchant acquiring CAGR of 11.3% from 2024-2030.

Statistic 58

North America holds 38% of global merchant services market share in 2023.

Statistic 59

Asia-Pacific merchant acquiring CAGR highest at 14.2% through 2030.

Statistic 60

U.S. merchants process 45% of global card volume in 2023.

Statistic 61

China digital payment merchant penetration: 95% in urban areas 2023.

Statistic 62

Europe contactless cap at €50 boosted adoption to 60% merchants.

Statistic 63

India UPI merchant transactions: 10 billion monthly average 2023.

Statistic 64

Brazil Pix instant payments captured 32% merchant volume 2023.

Statistic 65

UK open banking merchant adoption: 48% in 2023.

Statistic 66

Australia real-time payments via NPP: 1.2 billion txns for merchants 2023.

Statistic 67

Middle East merchant digital wallet share: 41% in UAE 2023.

Statistic 68

Africa mobile money merchant txns: $850 billion volume 2023.

Statistic 69

Canada SMB merchants 78% cashless post-COVID 2023.

Statistic 70

Germany merchants avg 2.1% MDR due to caps 2023.

Statistic 71

Mexico merchant acquiring concentration: top 3 players 70% share 2023.

Statistic 72

Southeast Asia QR payments merchants: 70 million active 2023.

Statistic 73

France 89% merchants accept cards, highest in EU 2023.

Statistic 74

South Korea NFC merchant coverage: 92% urban 2023.

Statistic 75

Turkey merchant BNPL growth: 55% YoY 2023.

Statistic 76

Nigeria POS terminals: 1.5 million deployed for merchants 2023.

Statistic 77

Singapore unified payments framework txns: 2.5 billion 2023.

Statistic 78

Gen Z merchants prefer digital wallets: 82% adoption rate 2023.

Statistic 79

Female-owned SMBs merchant tech adoption lags 12% behind males 2023.

Statistic 80

Rural merchants digital payment gap: 35% lower than urban 2023.

Statistic 81

Global merchant average transaction value (ATV) rose 4.2% to $112 in 2023.

Statistic 82

U.S. merchant processing fees totaled $58 billion in 2023.

Statistic 83

Average MDR for e-commerce merchants: 2.4% in Europe 2023.

Statistic 84

BNPL merchant revenue share: 3.5% of total payments volume 2023.

Statistic 85

Credit card interchange fees for merchants averaged 1.95% in U.S. 2023.

Statistic 86

Global merchant services provider revenue: $145 billion in 2023.

Statistic 87

SMB merchants paid $12.4 billion in processing fees in U.S. 2023.

Statistic 88

Visa merchant fees generated $26.7 billion globally in FY2023.

Statistic 89

Mastercard service revenues from merchants: $20.1 billion in 2023.

Statistic 90

Average ticket size for contactless merchant txns: $28 in U.S. 2023.

Statistic 91

Merchant chargeback rates: 0.85% globally in 2023.

Statistic 92

E-commerce fraud losses for merchants: $48 billion worldwide 2023.

Statistic 93

PayPal merchant services revenue: $14.8 billion in 2023.

Statistic 94

Stripe gross payment volume processed: $817 billion for merchants 2023.

Statistic 95

Adyen merchant processing volume: €1.2 trillion in 2023.

Statistic 96

Square (Block) gross payment volume: $210 billion in 2023.

Statistic 97

Merchant savings from tokenization: avg 15% reduction in fraud costs 2023.

Statistic 98

Global merchant forex fees: $22 billion annually in 2023.

Statistic 99

U.S. debit PIN debit merchant fees: 0.5% average discount rate 2023.

Statistic 100

BNPL late fees revenue for merchants/partners: $2.1 billion U.S. 2023.

Statistic 101

Merchant revenue from loyalty programs: 7% uplift average 2023.

Statistic 102

Chargeback liability shift saved merchants $1.5B via 3DS 2.0 in 2023.

Statistic 103

Average revenue per user (ARPU) for merchant acquirers: $450k in 2023.

Statistic 104

Cross-border merchant txns fees: 3.2% average globally 2023.

Statistic 105

U.S. restaurant merchants avg processing cost: 3.1% per txn 2023.

Statistic 106

Fintech merchant platforms avg take rate: 1.2% in 2023.

Statistic 107

Global merchant refunds rate: 4.7% of e-com volume 2023.

Statistic 108

45% of AI-driven fraud tools reduced merchant losses by 30% avg 2023.

Statistic 109

72% of merchants worldwide use 5G-enabled POS by end 2023.

Statistic 110

Blockchain-based merchant payments grew 28% in transaction volume 2023.

Statistic 111

AI personalization in merchant checkouts boosted conversion 15% avg 2023.

Statistic 112

58% of merchants adopted serverless payment architectures 2023.

Statistic 113

Quantum-safe encryption piloted by 11% of large merchants 2023.

Statistic 114

Edge computing in POS reduced latency by 40% for 33% merchants 2023.

Statistic 115

61% of merchants integrated Web3 wallets for payments 2023.

Statistic 116

AR/VR shopping tech adopted by 18% of retail merchants 2023.

Statistic 117

5G-powered mPOS devices shipments: 120 million units in 2023.

Statistic 118

Machine learning fraud scores accuracy: 98% for top merchants 2023.

Statistic 119

49% merchants use composable commerce platforms 2023.

Statistic 120

IoT-enabled smart shelves in 24% of grocery merchants 2023.

Statistic 121

Voice-activated payments volume: $15 billion via merchants 2023.

Statistic 122

Zero-trust security frameworks in 67% enterprise merchants 2023.

Statistic 123

Metaverse merchant storefronts: 500+ active in 2023.

Statistic 124

Predictive analytics for inventory cut stockouts 25% for 42% merchants.

Statistic 125

Embedded finance APIs integrated by 39% of platforms 2023.

Statistic 126

Holographic checkout pilots in 7% luxury merchants 2023.

Statistic 127

Generative AI chatbots handled 22% merchant customer service 2023.

Statistic 128

Digital twin tech for supply chain in 16% merchants 2023.

Statistic 129

Federated learning for privacy-preserving fraud models in 14% 2023.

Statistic 130

81% merchants upgraded to PCI DSS 4.0 compliance in 2023.

Statistic 131

RPA automated 35% of merchant reconciliation processes 2023.

Statistic 132

53% use low-code platforms for custom payment flows 2023.

Statistic 133

Neuromorphic chips in fraud detection prototypes for 5% merchants 2023.

Statistic 134

Sustainable green POS hardware adopted by 29% EU merchants 2023.

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Imagine a world where nearly every tap, click, and swipe unlocks a piece of the explosive, trillion-dollar merchant services industry, a sector that is not just growing but fundamentally reshaping global commerce.

Key Takeaways

  • The global merchant services market size was valued at $45.2 billion in 2022 and is projected to grow to $78.9 billion by 2030 at a CAGR of 7.2%.
  • U.S. merchant acquiring volume reached $8.9 trillion in 2022, up 12% from the previous year.
  • The POS terminal market worldwide was estimated at $112.4 billion in 2023, expected to expand at 10.5% CAGR through 2030.
  • 68% of U.S. merchants adopted digital wallets by Q4 2023.
  • Contactless payments accounted for 55% of all in-store merchant transactions in Europe 2023.
  • 42% of global merchants integrated BNPL options by mid-2023.
  • Global merchant average transaction value (ATV) rose 4.2% to $112 in 2023.
  • U.S. merchant processing fees totaled $58 billion in 2023.
  • Average MDR for e-commerce merchants: 2.4% in Europe 2023.
  • 72% of merchants worldwide use 5G-enabled POS by end 2023.
  • Blockchain-based merchant payments grew 28% in transaction volume 2023.
  • AI personalization in merchant checkouts boosted conversion 15% avg 2023.
  • North America holds 38% of global merchant services market share in 2023.
  • Asia-Pacific merchant acquiring CAGR highest at 14.2% through 2030.
  • U.S. merchants process 45% of global card volume in 2023.

The merchant services industry is experiencing strong global growth driven by rising digital and contactless payment adoption.

Adoption and Usage Statistics

  • 68% of U.S. merchants adopted digital wallets by Q4 2023.
  • Contactless payments accounted for 55% of all in-store merchant transactions in Europe 2023.
  • 42% of global merchants integrated BNPL options by mid-2023.
  • Mobile POS adoption among U.S. retailers reached 62% in 2023.
  • 75% of UK merchants now accept Apple Pay, up from 45% in 2021.
  • Tap-to-pay on iPhone adopted by 28% of U.S. small merchants in 2023.
  • 81% of e-commerce merchants use multiple payment gateways in 2023.
  • QR code payments usage among Asian merchants hit 65% in 2023.
  • 53% of Latin American merchants shifted to omnichannel payments in 2023.
  • U.S. grocery merchants: 92% accept EMV chip cards post-2023.
  • 37% of global merchants offer crypto payments in 2023.
  • NFC adoption in merchant terminals: 78% worldwide by 2023.
  • 64% of SMBs in Canada use integrated POS systems in 2023.
  • Voice commerce payment adoption: 19% among U.S. merchants 2023.
  • 71% of Australian merchants accept digital wallets per RBA 2023 survey.
  • Biometric payment adoption: 12% of EU merchants in 2023.
  • 88% of large U.S. retailers use tokenization services 2023.
  • P2P payment apps integrated by 45% of merchants globally 2023.
  • Subscription billing tools adopted by 56% of SaaS merchants 2023.
  • 29% of merchants worldwide use AI for fraud detection 2023.
  • Open banking APIs adopted by 34% of European merchants 2023.
  • 67% of Indian merchants use UPI for transactions in 2023.
  • Self-checkout POS systems in 41% of U.S. supermarkets 2023.
  • 52% of Brazilian merchants accept Pix payments fully 2023.
  • Headless commerce platforms used by 23% of online merchants 2023.
  • 76% of hospitality merchants use mobile ordering apps 2023.
  • Virtual cards adoption: 31% among B2B merchants 2023.

Adoption and Usage Statistics Interpretation

Merchants worldwide are transforming into digital-first chameleons, rapidly adopting everything from tap-to-pay to BNPL and AI fraud detection, not because it's trendy, but because offering every conceivable payment method has become the bare minimum to fend off irrelevance.

Market Size and Growth

  • The global merchant services market size was valued at $45.2 billion in 2022 and is projected to grow to $78.9 billion by 2030 at a CAGR of 7.2%.
  • U.S. merchant acquiring volume reached $8.9 trillion in 2022, up 12% from the previous year.
  • The POS terminal market worldwide was estimated at $112.4 billion in 2023, expected to expand at 10.5% CAGR through 2030.
  • Digital payments processing for merchants grew by 18.4% YoY to $6.2 trillion in 2023 globally.
  • Merchant payment processing fees in North America averaged 2.9% of transaction volume in 2023.
  • The contactless payment market for merchants hit $1.5 trillion in volume in 2023, with 45% market penetration.
  • Global mPOS market revenue reached $25.6 billion in 2023, forecasted to $48.2 billion by 2028 at 13.5% CAGR.
  • E-commerce payment gateway market valued at $18.7 billion in 2022, growing at 22.1% CAGR to 2030.
  • U.S. small business merchant services adoption drove $1.2 trillion in card volume in 2023.
  • BNPL merchant volume surged 41% to $24 billion globally in H1 2023.
  • Merchant acquiring market in Asia-Pacific grew 15.2% to $12.4 billion in 2023.
  • Global payment processing market expected to reach $200 billion by 2027 from $120 billion in 2022.
  • U.S. debit card merchant volume increased 8.7% to $4.1 trillion in 2022.
  • Credit card acceptance among merchants rose to 92% in Europe by end of 2023.
  • Merchant services software market hit $7.8 billion in 2023, with 11.9% CAGR projected.
  • Online merchant transaction volume globally: $5.8 trillion in 2023, up 14%.
  • Latin America merchant acquiring grew 22% to $450 billion volume in 2023.
  • NFC-enabled merchant terminals reached 15 million units worldwide in 2023.
  • Merchant discount rate (MDR) averaged 1.8% globally in 2023 for Visa transactions.
  • Payment orchestration platforms market for merchants: $1.2 billion in 2023, 25% CAGR.
  • Global merchant POS software market valued at $12.5 billion in 2023.
  • U.S. merchant credit card volume: $7.2 trillion in 2023, 9.5% growth.
  • Fintech merchant services startups raised $4.5 billion in VC funding in 2023.
  • Merchant tokenization services market: $2.8 billion in 2023, 16% CAGR to 2030.
  • Europe merchant acquiring revenue: €45 billion in 2023.
  • Global real-time payments for merchants processed $1.9 trillion in 2023.
  • SMB merchant payment processing market share: 35% of total volume in 2023.
  • Merchant services M&A deals totaled 150 transactions worth $18 billion in 2023.
  • Cloud-based merchant platforms market: $9.1 billion in 2023.
  • Projected global merchant acquiring CAGR of 11.3% from 2024-2030.

Market Size and Growth Interpretation

The sheer, relentless surge in merchant payment processing—from the staggering $8.9 trillion washing through U.S. terminals to the 41% explosion of BNPL and the quiet ubiquity of 15 million NFC readers—paints a world so financially kinetic that it seems the act of paying has become the primary global growth industry.

Regional and Demographic Insights

  • North America holds 38% of global merchant services market share in 2023.
  • Asia-Pacific merchant acquiring CAGR highest at 14.2% through 2030.
  • U.S. merchants process 45% of global card volume in 2023.
  • China digital payment merchant penetration: 95% in urban areas 2023.
  • Europe contactless cap at €50 boosted adoption to 60% merchants.
  • India UPI merchant transactions: 10 billion monthly average 2023.
  • Brazil Pix instant payments captured 32% merchant volume 2023.
  • UK open banking merchant adoption: 48% in 2023.
  • Australia real-time payments via NPP: 1.2 billion txns for merchants 2023.
  • Middle East merchant digital wallet share: 41% in UAE 2023.
  • Africa mobile money merchant txns: $850 billion volume 2023.
  • Canada SMB merchants 78% cashless post-COVID 2023.
  • Germany merchants avg 2.1% MDR due to caps 2023.
  • Mexico merchant acquiring concentration: top 3 players 70% share 2023.
  • Southeast Asia QR payments merchants: 70 million active 2023.
  • France 89% merchants accept cards, highest in EU 2023.
  • South Korea NFC merchant coverage: 92% urban 2023.
  • Turkey merchant BNPL growth: 55% YoY 2023.
  • Nigeria POS terminals: 1.5 million deployed for merchants 2023.
  • Singapore unified payments framework txns: 2.5 billion 2023.
  • Gen Z merchants prefer digital wallets: 82% adoption rate 2023.
  • Female-owned SMBs merchant tech adoption lags 12% behind males 2023.
  • Rural merchants digital payment gap: 35% lower than urban 2023.

Regional and Demographic Insights Interpretation

While North America currently writes the checks and Europe sets the rules, the true financial revolution is being scribbled on QR codes and pinged through mobile phones from Asia to Africa, leaving no merchant behind.

Revenue and Financial Metrics

  • Global merchant average transaction value (ATV) rose 4.2% to $112 in 2023.
  • U.S. merchant processing fees totaled $58 billion in 2023.
  • Average MDR for e-commerce merchants: 2.4% in Europe 2023.
  • BNPL merchant revenue share: 3.5% of total payments volume 2023.
  • Credit card interchange fees for merchants averaged 1.95% in U.S. 2023.
  • Global merchant services provider revenue: $145 billion in 2023.
  • SMB merchants paid $12.4 billion in processing fees in U.S. 2023.
  • Visa merchant fees generated $26.7 billion globally in FY2023.
  • Mastercard service revenues from merchants: $20.1 billion in 2023.
  • Average ticket size for contactless merchant txns: $28 in U.S. 2023.
  • Merchant chargeback rates: 0.85% globally in 2023.
  • E-commerce fraud losses for merchants: $48 billion worldwide 2023.
  • PayPal merchant services revenue: $14.8 billion in 2023.
  • Stripe gross payment volume processed: $817 billion for merchants 2023.
  • Adyen merchant processing volume: €1.2 trillion in 2023.
  • Square (Block) gross payment volume: $210 billion in 2023.
  • Merchant savings from tokenization: avg 15% reduction in fraud costs 2023.
  • Global merchant forex fees: $22 billion annually in 2023.
  • U.S. debit PIN debit merchant fees: 0.5% average discount rate 2023.
  • BNPL late fees revenue for merchants/partners: $2.1 billion U.S. 2023.
  • Merchant revenue from loyalty programs: 7% uplift average 2023.
  • Chargeback liability shift saved merchants $1.5B via 3DS 2.0 in 2023.
  • Average revenue per user (ARPU) for merchant acquirers: $450k in 2023.
  • Cross-border merchant txns fees: 3.2% average globally 2023.
  • U.S. restaurant merchants avg processing cost: 3.1% per txn 2023.
  • Fintech merchant platforms avg take rate: 1.2% in 2023.
  • Global merchant refunds rate: 4.7% of e-com volume 2023.
  • 45% of AI-driven fraud tools reduced merchant losses by 30% avg 2023.

Revenue and Financial Metrics Interpretation

The merchant's world is a profitable dance floor where they gleefully spin bigger transaction values ($112 average!) only to pay the piper a staggering $58 billion in fees to the U.S. processing band, all while dodging $48 billion in fraud pickpockets and hoping their loyalty program tambourine brings a 7% sales uplift.

Technology and Innovation Trends

  • 72% of merchants worldwide use 5G-enabled POS by end 2023.
  • Blockchain-based merchant payments grew 28% in transaction volume 2023.
  • AI personalization in merchant checkouts boosted conversion 15% avg 2023.
  • 58% of merchants adopted serverless payment architectures 2023.
  • Quantum-safe encryption piloted by 11% of large merchants 2023.
  • Edge computing in POS reduced latency by 40% for 33% merchants 2023.
  • 61% of merchants integrated Web3 wallets for payments 2023.
  • AR/VR shopping tech adopted by 18% of retail merchants 2023.
  • 5G-powered mPOS devices shipments: 120 million units in 2023.
  • Machine learning fraud scores accuracy: 98% for top merchants 2023.
  • 49% merchants use composable commerce platforms 2023.
  • IoT-enabled smart shelves in 24% of grocery merchants 2023.
  • Voice-activated payments volume: $15 billion via merchants 2023.
  • Zero-trust security frameworks in 67% enterprise merchants 2023.
  • Metaverse merchant storefronts: 500+ active in 2023.
  • Predictive analytics for inventory cut stockouts 25% for 42% merchants.
  • Embedded finance APIs integrated by 39% of platforms 2023.
  • Holographic checkout pilots in 7% luxury merchants 2023.
  • Generative AI chatbots handled 22% merchant customer service 2023.
  • Digital twin tech for supply chain in 16% merchants 2023.
  • Federated learning for privacy-preserving fraud models in 14% 2023.
  • 81% merchants upgraded to PCI DSS 4.0 compliance in 2023.
  • RPA automated 35% of merchant reconciliation processes 2023.
  • 53% use low-code platforms for custom payment flows 2023.
  • Neuromorphic chips in fraud detection prototypes for 5% merchants 2023.
  • Sustainable green POS hardware adopted by 29% EU merchants 2023.

Technology and Innovation Trends Interpretation

While merchants spent 2023 racing to wire up with every tech buzzword from blockchain to the metaverse, the real story is that payments are no longer a simple transaction but a fragmented, AI-driven, and occasionally holographic arms race for the last inch of customer attention and the first line of defense against fraud.

Sources & References